Factors that Relate to Orphan hood

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Chapter 3: Discourse on Supportive Programmes for Orphans

Introduction

The previous chapter served to explain the different viewpoints of researchers on the impact of orphan hood on orphaned learners‘ behavioural, emotional, academic and social interaction patterns in the communities in which these children find themselves. A variety of international, continental and South African case studies was identified to indicate the relevance of the findings of previous researchers to the current study.
In this chapter, literature pertaining to supportive programmes for orphans will also be reviewed and discussed. The purpose of looking specifically at these educational programmes is twofold. Firstly, to have a general idea of how other countries in different parts of the world are addressing the behavioural challenges of orphaned learners. Secondly, to equip the researcher with knowledge of different designed programmes that exists in various countries. The knowledge of the programmes will assist the researcher to design a psycho-educational programme to enhance the learning of orphaned learners in CHH under investigation in this study.
The discussion of the literature has once again been divided into subsections that relate to the various aspects of the current study. This chapter will highlight those elements of supportive programmes that shape and determine their design/structure. The elements include the need for intervention, the nature of supportive programmes for orphans, their design and use, the theoretical framework of the programmes, the types of programmes, and their advantages and disadvantages. The type of supportive programmes will be presented in the form of case studies.

The Need for Intervention

A number of supportive programmes (formerly called compensatory education programmes) have been designed and implemented by various organisations in various countries including government departments to meet the educational needs of educationally disadvantaged pupils, for example, Brown and Riddle (1992), Natriello, McDill and Pallas (1990) and Lenyai (2006). The aims of these supportive programmes are twofold. Firstly, to meet the educational needs of those affected. Secondly, to ensure that those affected get off to a sound start in schooling, so that they can avoid getting caught in a vicious circle of low motivation and under achievement (Kyriacou, 2003:114).
Based on the comprehensive review of published literature in chapter 2, on the intergenerational impacts of orphan hood which highlighted that orphaned children experience reduced enrolment, reduced school attention, poor school attainment and higher rate of school dropout (Cluver 2009:44-45) there is a need for intervention to support these learners in their education. The South African government‘s goal is that all South African public schools should tackle the alienation of learners by creating a supportive and safe school environment providing interesting and challenging curricular including stimulating extracurricular activities and teaching learners well. Subject to section 16 A of SASA and section 4 of the personnel administrative measures (PAM) the responsibility for fostering such a caring school environment rests with the principal. It is the principal‘s responsibility to appoint qualified competent educators who take interest in each learner‘s wellbeing and are alert to problems that might affect a learner‘s attendance (Department of Higher Education, 2010:14). Furthermore, the policy states that it is important for principals of schools to put in place programmes that should lead to the development of teachers with strong subject content, knowledge, who know how to teach specific subjects effectively and confidently in varying South African school phases and contexts. It must however be stressed that whilst in theory this sounds logical, in reality there are contextual factors that might affect the implementation of recruiting competent teachers by principals. For example, the critical shortage of qualified and experienced teachers in the country and political appointments of teachers based on political affiliation and nepotism Research therefore now needs to focus on the development of supportive programmes for improving schooling outcomes for these orphaned children and reduce risk outcomes associated with little or no education amongst orphaned children. These supportive programmes might be used to ―turn the tide‖ and halt the spread of the impact on orphan‘s schoolings (Wood 2008:198).
The present support in South Africa is that Life Orientation subjects were intended to equip the learners with relevant life skills, which would in turn educationally equip the learners with relevant academic support. This is based on the Department of Education 2001 White Paper 6 policy framework that outlines the ministry of education commitment to the provision of educational opportunities in particular of those learners who experience or have experienced various barriers to learning and development. Guided by the thrust of the White Paper 6 policy selected topics in Life Orientation subjects were included by the department of education Life Orientation subjects specialists to empower the learners in their emotional, behavioural and academic needs from Grade 4 to 12. Failure to pass Life Orientation at Grade 12 would result in one not getting a matriculation certificate. However, for reasons best known to them, some learners and teachers in some schools are not taking the subject seriously since it is not nationally examinable. My observation has noted that in most cases, teachers act as babysitter for the learners, and no learning or minimal teaching takes place. This leaves the learners with no relevant life skill needed for survival. Pittman, lrby, Tolman, Yohalem and Ferber (2003: 29) concur and state that Life Orientation strategies are not responding as fully as they might to the needs and wants of learners and are thus failing to attract young people after the age of 12 or 13, even to such potentially attractive offerings as sports. Orphaned learners who really need care and support for their behavioural and emotional needs might therefore benefit greatly from such a programme specifically designed to suit their educational behavioural needs guided by policies discussed in paragraph 3.4. Meanwhile a discussion on the nature of supportive programmes will ensue.

Nature of Supportive Programmes for Orphans

The theory that underpins the programme development of this study is founded on the person centred theory developed by Rogers (1951). Rogers (1951) believed that individuals and groups have the innate capacity to set their own goals and work towards their own progress in counselling (Raskin, Rogers and Witty, 2011:148-195). One proponent of the theory, Ray (2011) clearly articulated the child‘s therapeutic progression within child/person centred philosophy. Ray (2011) explained that child centred therapy operated on the premise that within an accepting climate, provided by the therapist, the child experiences no threat to the self structure, hence, the child is able to examine experiences perceived as inconsistent with self structure and then work towards revising those experiences. As the child feels positively regarded, he/she is able to behaviourally express and explore feelings and thoughts of incongruence through play/symbolic expression (Ray 2011:49). In this self exploration process the child is able to integrate a new awareness of self and develop full functioning. Thus, person centred counsellors who work with children believe that the provision of a counselling relationship in which children experience genuine, caring and profound non judgmental understanding, helps them attain constructive change (Bratto, Ray, Edward, Landreth, 2009:50).
Based on the over aching aim of the study which is to address the behavioural challenges that orphaned learners who head households experience and to develop a psycho-educational programme to support their learning, the child centred play therapy (CCPT) model will be adopted to develop the supportive programme in this study. Ojiambo (2011:1) states that child centred play therapy (CCPT) is a developmentally sensitive intervention that has been successfully applied in schools in the United States to address children‘s early mental health conscience. Numerous controlled outcome studies, the majority of which were school based and targeted children under 10 years of age have demonstrated CCPT‘s effectiveness as a developmentally and culturally responsive intervention for treating varied social, emotional, behavioural and learning difficulties (Bratton, 2010:17-58). The researcher thinks that the CCPT model will be ideal for addressing the identified behavioural challenges for orphans who head households given that the programme will focus on the academic needs, behavioural needs, social and/ or emotional needs of orphans who head households. A successful supportive programme needs to deal with underlying deprivations affecting the affected learners that involve both home and school circumstances (Kyriacou, 2003:124).
The above is crucial, since programmes must ensure continuity both at home and school. The researcher posits that behavioural challenges that might affect orphans are not only confined to the home, but they may also spill over to the school environment. Research has noted that the pervasive influence of the child‘s circumstances (e.g. the effect of poverty or living in a home or community with low expectations of educational success) has a tendency to reassert itself once the period of support has come to a close and the educational gains made typically regress towards the norm for the deprived group – a phenomenon termed ‗‘wash-out ‗‘ (Natriello, et al 1990, cited in Kyriacou, 2003:132).
Another factor of importance on supportive programmes is their relevance to the recipients. The programmes must be perceived by the affected recipients to meet their present/current and future educational needs (UNICEF, 2008). The implication here is that supportive programmes for children should be tailored to support the individuals within their home and school environments to confront the issues that they face in the present, thereby equipping them with skills, confidence and the ability to sustain themselves in the future (Ward and Eyber, 2009:17-33). With regard to the subject under investigation, the researcher assumes that given that these children have lost both parents, they might be experiencing both emotional and material problems affecting their learning process.
Kyriacou (2003:114) supports the above assertion and states that programmes should focus on general behaviour and attitudes of learners. Considerations of personal problems that are likely to threaten the pupil‘s wellbeing need to be taken care of. Personal problems threatening the wellbeing of learners might result from ill discipline, and behaviour tendencies. Joubert, De Waal and Rossouw (2005:208) indicate that discipline at school has two very important goals, namely to create an environment conducive to learning and teaching and to ensure the safety of staff and learners. The authors further highlighted the negative implications of disciplinary problems of learners by stating that, if certain learners are scared to attend school because they constantly feel threatened, or the behaviour of learners in a school disrupts the normal teaching and learning process, this has a serious impact on learners‘ access to equal educational opportunities. As already alluded to in chapter 2, paragraph 2.8 page 65, schools are experiencing a lot of ill disciple amongst learners to such an extent that teachers are finding it difficult to conduct effective lessons in their respective classrooms.
Currently, one of the most prominent factors that influence the learning environment in South African Schools is the conduct of learners (Joubert 2005:209). South African research by Moloi (2002:2) found that many learners including orphaned ones no longer nurture a culture of respect for and trust in their educators. Moloi argues that although these orphaned learners are in the minority, some educators are threatened, sworn at, ignored and abused on a daily basis. The researcher has been a victim of such abuse by learners on several occasions at different institutions he has taught at. He has been called names, sworn at, physically manhandled and even threatened with being a target for gang fights. Such misbehaviour tendencies have negative implications for effective teaching and learning. In line with Moloi‘s findings, Taylor (1998:1) points out that orphaned students who misbehave tend to perform poorly in school and to be frequently absent from school. Taylor goes on to highlight that fellow learners‘ safety, security and success in education are often adversely affected by disruptive behaviour or other forms of misconduct by these learners.
The on-going disruptive behaviour of not only one or two learners per class hampers the education process to such an extent that effective learning cannot take place despite the educator‘s diligent and conscientious efforts (Joubert, De Waal, Rossouw, 2005:216). On the same note, Walker and Buckley 1973, cited in Heward and Orlansky (1992:207) have suggested that the misbehaving child‘s academic deficits can be explained, at least in part, in terms of the large amounts of time the child spends on non-academic matters such as running around the room, or fighting at the expense of learning. In other words, these behaviour patterns limit the child‘s chances to take part in and learn from the school and leisure activities in which normal children participate. Such findings highlight the need to design intervention programmes to curb misbehaviour in orphaned learners, which in turn, may lead to a withdrawal of effort and general alienation from school learning and instead nurture positive learning attitudes in them.
Linked to the above, programmes also need to focus on the academic progress of in-school learners where educators need to assess the academic individual needs of these orphaned children. This is important because research has shown that those orphaned pupils who see educational attainment as an important requirement for their future (adult) lives are much more likely to strive to meet the demands of schooling life (including toleration and acquiescence where appropriate) than their peers who have not adopted such values or aspirations (Kyriacou 2003:124). This might help the affected orphaned pupils to appreciate personal achievement and aspiration. Thus, supportive programme activities should help pupils to develop positive attitudes about the learning areas (subjects) they are struggling in and about themselves as learners, and also desirable personal qualities such as perseverance (Kyriacou, 2003:124). The researcher concurs given that during his teaching experience he has noticed some orphaned learners who lose hope and get frustrated when they fail to cope. This leads to some dropping out.
One way through which the academic performance of in-school struggling orphaned learners can be improved is through designing programmes that boost or promote their study skills. Masterman (2005:2) defines study skills as, ―the reading and thinking skills requisite to any study task‖. That is, those skills necessary to define, analyse, solve and report on a problem in a disciplined and independent way (Tabberer (1987) cited by Masterman, 2005:3). Kyriacou (2003: 31) argues that a lack of study skills lies at the heart of why many orphaned pupils fail to complete tasks adequately. In spite of that, many schools do not devote curriculum time to fostering a range of study skills such as evaluation of one‘s own learning and performance through planning and self-monitoring (self-organisation), problem solving (Masterman, 2005:6), and essay writing, answering questions, revision and examination techniques, note taking, motivation (Hamblin 1981 in Masterman 2005), and also time management, work presentation, active methods of homework planning and target setting (BBC‘s web site on study skills http://www.bbc.co.uk/education / as guru / study skill).
The researcher can confirm that most teachers at the researcher‘s school do not devote time to at least equip these orphaned learners with basic study skills. These are crucial educational elements which if not developed might put learners at a disadvantage of excelling in the academic pursuits. Designed supportive programmes focussing on the above educational aspects might therefore go a long way to address academic learning needs of orphaned children. Thus, the purpose of teaching study skills to these learners is for reinforcement of active learning with a view to raising the level of achievement given the learning barriers they are likely to experience (Hamblin 1981:2, in Masterman, 2005:6).
Hamblin concurs and states that study skills can ―turn orphaned pupils into students‖ by stimulating them to take responsibility for and control over their learning and its outcomes. Hamblin 1981, in Cottrell (2003:13) goes on to state that teaching study skills raises the orphaned children‘s aspirations through reinforcing what is positive in them and building their self-esteem. By so doing, the sense of hopelessness might be removed or minimised in the affected orphaned learners thereby affording these learners dignity at the same time trying to break the cycle of failure they might be experiencing. Over the years, the researcher has noticed learners who do not even know how to prepare for a test or end of year exam despite the fact that these study skills are expected to be taught during LO lesson activities across all grades through to 12.
Aside from the academic progression, in-school orphaned learners also need support in the form of counselling to provide educational support (UNICEF, 2003:23). These forms of support might cater for grieving and traumatic experiences the learners might be going through as a result of the loss of their parents. UNICEF (2003:24) has observed that children who are traumatised and stressed are likely to have a more pessimistic outlook on life. Stigmatisation, discrimination, social isolation, dropping out of school, moving away from school, and bearing an increased workload in the home all heighten the stress and trauma that accompany the deaths of their parents (Essex, Mboup, Kanki, Marlink and Tlou 2002:669). The authors further state that it is therefore imperative that psychological support in the form of counselling be strategically integrated into programmes for orphans.

Type of Supportive Programmes Suitable for Orphans

The aims of counselling and guidance programmes incorporated into the psycho-educational support programmes might therefore be to develop a balanced personality in each child by helping him/her to develop a complete person intellectually, emotionally, morally and socially(united Nations 2014:21). It will also help each child monitor his/her own emotional and behavioural problems in and out of school (Gilborn and Nyonyintono 2000:36). Orphaned learners might be equipped with more hope for the future by focusing on behavioural and attitudinal counselling, together with guidance for subject choices and/or vocational career choices. In this way, a road map for their future will be paved. For instance, a range of options for their future career paths will be opened enabling participants to improve their self-confidence at the same time developing a clear and more self-assured identify in the process (Carr, 2000:29).
Care and support programmes are ideal entry points for preparing these children for optimistic future life prospects (Essex et al, 2002:670). Such interventions might include support to overcome grief, trauma and emotional imbalances. The thrust of the programme will be to strengthen their psychosocial wellbeing, increase their goal setting and decision making (Essex et al, 2005:670). This is compounded by the fact that orphaned children living in child-headed households are left in the care of their older siblings who have to fulfil their affective needs. Without loving care, a child may develop a mistrusting attitude towards others and towards life in general, – education included. Mkhize (2005:16) states that the fact that children find themselves in situations where they have to assume roles that are prescribed by society as adult is a crisis that might interfere with schooling and their emotional stability. If adult caregivers can experience stress due to financial or budgetary constraints, how t much more children who are heading households without the necessary competent parenting skills.
There is also a need to address the behaviour and social interaction related issues of orphaned learners around substance abuse and other aspects compounded by adolescence, although this might be contrary to some African cultural and traditional taboos. The subject of sex in an African context is not for discussion between children and their parents. The role is allocated to the aunts and uncles to discuss these issues with growing adolescents on behalf of the biological parents. However, given the disintegration of family ties in urban settings, should this subject be left to chance and our orphaned children suffer from lack of sex knowledge because of tradition. The researcher emphatically answers ―no‖ considering what reviewed literature and practical experience has shown about teenage pregnancies. Chauhan (2003:119) states that adolescence is marked by a number of developmental characteristics that create disturbances in the mind of adolescents. Schools witness cases of teenage pregnancies every year for both orphaned and parented learners. Schools, therefore, need to make provision for programmes that focus specifically on such aspects that will enable adolescent orphaned in-school learners to develop positive and healthy attitudes towards the members of the opposite sex and be knowledgeable about the dangers associated with sexual practices.
There is no doubt that if sex education is introduced in earnest right from the elementary level ( i.e. primary school level) through Health Education, most of the sex-related problems of school adolescents will be checked. Guidance of learners in the development of healthy social relations to foster positive attitudes might assist learners by removing or minimising various concerns associated with adolescence – a stage said to be full of ―storm and stress‖. This could help to deal with anxiety related to school work, examinations and tests, complaints of unreasonable homework, lack of ability to concentrate, worry of failure, inadequacies related to their sex roles, etc (Chauhan 2003:145). All these concerns need to be addressed because they might impact negatively on the affected children‘s learning, since these concerns might make the learners lose focus and concentration in class.
The researcher concurs and shares his practical teaching experience where on the 24th of August 2011, a Grade 8 adolescent orphaned girl who was rejected by her ―first‖ high school boyfriend for the reason that she was unable to kiss, was in tears for the entire 45 minutes in a Social Science lesson. The concern of this orphaned girl resulted in her failing to focus on her class work. She was emotionally disturbed. This was worsened by the teasing she got from her peers who accused her of bringing this upon herself since she had involved herself in love relationships whilst she was still young. That is, engaging in a relationship with the opposite sex at a tender age rather than focussing on her core business of schoolwork. The researcher wonders how many adolescent orphaned learners experience such ordeals in their schooling and how this impacts negatively on learning. It is still worse, if these orphaned learners are living in CHH and have no adult caregivers to support them emotionally at home on issues related to sex and sexuality. Schools as second homes need to design supportive programmes that can assist orphaned teenagers who might experience such predicaments, which affects the behaviour of learners. It must be emphasised that any intended programme needs to focus on its own intentions. That is the goals, aims or objectives. Some of the projected aims of the supportive programme for orphans might include the following:
1. To improve the academic and study skills of orphaned learners
2. To promote behavioural change that prevent drop out
3. To develop positive attitudes towards school, peers and teachers
4. To support emotional needs of orphans in CHH through diagnostic and counselling services (United Nations, 2004:20).

Policies/ Guidelines that Guide Supportive Programmes for Orphans

The researcher is of the opinion that important decisions as to the type of supportive programming should be based on an objective assessment of the child‘s individual needs, rather than on someone‘s opinion. In this study, this was honoured by getting the viewpoints of the orphaned learners living in CHH on the nature of supportive programmes they might need. Involving children in the study is of great importance. According to Duncan and Arnston (2004) cited in Ward and Eyber (2009:112), consulting the children for their input in a project may be a process that promotes their psycho-social wellbeing, giving them an increased sense of security. The authors further state that the act of sensitively listening to children will demonstrate that their experiences, opinions and ideas are valued. Hence, the subject under investigation will appreciate this even further because culturally, children are not encouraged to interact freely with adults and with no living parents, there were no prospects of being listened to (Cluver and Operio, 2005:1-13).Thus, the participation of the affected group of children in determining their educational needs and defining appropriate responses becomes fundamental (Boler and Carrol, 2008:13).
Policies designed for supportive programmes are guided by theoretical frameworks. World over, international organisation such as the United Nations Children‘s Education Fund (UNICEF), United States Agency for International Development (USAID) and United Nations Agency for International Development Services (UNAIDS) and World Health Organisation (WHO) are involved in designing policies that guide signatory member countries to design supportive programmes.
UNICEF, USAID AND UNAIDS (2004:18) have pointed out that orphaned children are not only a great concern, their presence reflects a much larger set of problems faced by children. Resulting from these concerns, in March 2004, the organisations endorsed a Framework for the protection, care and support of orphans and vulnerable children living in a world with HIV/AIDS. This was based on the premise that children who are deprived of the guidance and protection of their primary caregivers are more vulnerable to health risks, violence, exploitation and discrimination (UNICEF et al, 2004:19). The framework was therefore a consensus document on how best to respond to the growing number of orphans and vulnerable children caused by HIV/AIDS. Its aim was to bring significant progress towards the Millennium Development Goals and other global commitments such as Education for all (UNICEF et al, 2004:20). The framework provides a policy and programmatic basis to achieve goals set for orphans and other children made vulnerable by HIV/AIDS in all countries who are members of the United Nations (UN) South Africa included.
The framework incorporates programme guidance based on principles that guide service providers, government and other stakeholders in providing supportive or intervention programmes that meet the diverse needs of orphaned children. (Chitiyo, Changara and Chitiyo 2010:95-101). Among these are the following five key strategies:
• Providing support that strengthens the capacity of families to care for orphans.
• Involving the community.
• Promoting legal protection of orphans through governmental policy and legislation.
• Raising and promoting awareness in communities, and
• Ensuring access for orphans and vulnerable children to essential services including education, health care, birth registration and others (Chitiyo, et al, 2010:95-101).

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Cover Page
Abstract
Acknowledgement
Declaration
Dedication
Words of Inspiration
List of Tables
List of Appendices
Acronyms
Table Of Contents
1.0 CHAPTER ONE: ORIENTATION TO THE STUDY
1.1 Introduction
1.2Background
1.3 Awareness of the Problem
1.4 Statement of the Problem
1.5 Investigation of the Problem
1.6 Significance of the Study
1.7 Delimitation of the Study
1.8 Research Methodology
1.9 Explanation of Terms
1.10 Layout of Chapters
1.11Conclusion
2.0 CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1Introduction
2.2 Factors that Relate to Orphan hood
2.3 The Manifestation of Behaviour Problems Associated with Orphaned Children in CHH
2.4 The Influence of Children‘s Emotions on their Behavioural and other Developmental needs
2.5 Parents‘ Role in Developing Children‘s Behaviour
2.6 Role of Community in Emotional Behavioural needs of Children
2.7 Role of Teachers in Fostering Positive Emotional Development
2.8 The Influence of the School in on Children‘s Emotional well being
2.9 Emotional Development and successful learning
2.10 How Parents play a role in Emotional Problems
2.11Learning Problems Associated with Emotional and Behavioural Problems
2.12 Case Studies of Orphan hood
2.13 Conclusion
3.0 CHAPTER THREE: DISCOURSE ON SUPPORTIVE PROGRAMMES FOR ORPHANS
3.1Introduction
3.2 The Need for Intervention
3.3 Nature of Supportive Programmes for Orphans
3.4 Types of Supportive Programmes Suitable for Orphans
3.5 Policies/Guidelines that Guide Supportive Programmes for Orphans
3.6 Academic Guidelines for Successful Learning
3.7 Case Studies for Supportive Programmes for Orphaned Learners
3.8 Conclusion
4.0 CHAPTER 4: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Pilot Study
4.3 Research Methodology
4.4 Sampling
4.5 Research Techniques
4.6 Validity and Reliability
4.7 Ethical Consideration
4.8 Conclusion
5.0 CHAPTER 5: A REPORT, ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION OF RESEARCH FINDINDS
5.1Introduction
5.2 The Research Area
5.3 Report on Observation
5.4 Report on the Outcome of Semi Structured Interviews
5.5 Report on Documentary Analysis
5.6 Conclusion
6.0 CHAPTER 6: SUMMARY OF FINDINGS, CONCLUSIONS, RECOMMENDATIONS AND LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Summary of Findings and Conclusion
6.3 Summary and Conclusion of Study
6.4 Recommendations
6.5 A Proposed Psycho-Educational Programme
6.6 Limitations of the Study
6.7 Conclusion of the study
7.0 List of References
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