PSYCHO-SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT

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CHAPTER TWO ADOLESCENCE

INTRODUCTION

This chapter presents a literature study on the developmental stage of adolescence. According to Atkinson (2006:1), adolescence is a “psycho-social-biological stage of development occurring between childhood and adulthood” which usually starts with puberty and ends once a reasonable degree of independence, from parents, has been gained. This chapter examines the physical, cognitive, emotional, social and moral development during this life stage. It also discusses how changes in each of these areas could affect adolescent behaviour.

PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT

The physical and hormonal changes associated with puberty

According to Shefer (2004:74), the central aspects of physical development in adolescence are the physical and hormonal changes that take place in puberty. Puberty can be defined as “a period of rapid physical maturation involving hormonal and bodily changes that occur primarily during early adolescence” (Santrock 2006:365). The main changes of puberty are a physical growth spurt and the maturation of primary and secondary sex characteristics (Atkinson 2006:4). These physical changes of puberty are initiated by the pituitary gland which stimulates other endocrine glands to produce their own growth- and sex-related hormones (Mussen, Conger, Kagan & Huston 1984:500; Santrock 2006:366). The endocrine system’s role in puberty involves the interaction of the hypothalamus (a structure in the higher portion of the brain, monitoring eating, drinking and sex); the pituitary gland (an important endocrine gland, controlling growth and regulating other glands); and the gonads or sex glands (the testes in males and the ovaries in females). The pituitary gland sends a signal via the gonadotropins (hormones, stimulating the testes or ovaries) to the appropriate gland to manufacture the hormone. The pituitary gland, through interaction with the hypothalamus, then detects when the optimal level of hormones is reached and responds by maintaining gonadotropin secretion.
The concentration of certain hormones increases dramatically during adolescence (Susman & Rogol 2004:21-23). Testosterone is a hormone associated in boys with the development of genitals, an increase in height and a change in voice. Estradiol is a hormone associated in girls with breast, uterine and skeletal development. Both testosterone and estradiol are present in the hormonal make up of boys and girls but testosterone dominates in male pubertal development, while estradiol dominates in female pubertal development. Testosterone levels have been shown to increase 18-fold in boys but only two-fold in girls during puberty, while estradiol levels have been shown to increase eight-fold in girls but only two-fold in boys (Santrock 2006:366).
Atkinson (2006:4) explains that the adolescent growth spurt refers to an accelerated rate of increase first in weight and then in height and strength. The adolescent body is bigger, taller and different and a lack of symmetry often occurs because not all aspects of physical growth occur in a balanced way (Gerdes 1998:153). This results in many adolescents appearing to be either gangly or podgy.
Age at onset of puberty varies greatly but for the average boy, sexual maturation begins with more rapid growth of the testes and scrotum and the appearance of pubic hair, followed by an increase in the size of the penis, development of body and facial hair, breaking or lowering of the voice, sperm production, nocturnal emissions (or wet dreams) and an increasingly more masculine body build (Atkinson 2006:4; Mussen et al 1984:464-472,500; Shefer 2004:74-75; Royal College Of Psychiatrists 2004:1). For the average girl, sexual maturation usually begins with breast development, followed by the appearance of pubic and underarm hair and the enlargement of the uterus, vagina, labia and clitoris, with menarche (the onset of menstruation) appearing later in the cycle (Atkinson 2006:4; Mussen et al 1984:464-472, 500; Royal College Of Psychiatrists 2004:1).
As Atkinson (2006:4) points out, these physical changes signal reproductive potential, although peak fertility is generally reached several years later. Menarche occurs at a relatively consistent body mass in girls (Santrock 2006:365). A body mass of about 106 pounds can trigger menarche and the end of the pubertal growth spurt. Changes in skin texture also occur and this sometimes results in skin infections, such as acne (Shefer 2004:75).
Although these changes may seem quite dramatic, puberty is a gradual process, the exact beginning of which is difficult to pin point as hormonal changes begin some years before they become evident as body changes (Shefer 2004:75). Puberty generally starts at about 11 years of age for girls and 13 years of age for boys, with the age of onset of puberty appearing to be dropping in most countries (Royal College Of Psychiatrists 2004:1). Santrock (2006:365) explains that factors such as nutrition, health, heredity and body mass play a role in cross-cultural and historical differences in the onset age of puberty. In Norway, in the 1840’s, the average age of menarch was 17, compared to 13, in 2006. Similarly, in the United States of America, the average age of menarche has declined significantly since the mid-nineteenth century.

The psychological and behavioural effects of physical development

According to Shefer (2004:75), the physical changes of adolescence have “multiple psychological consequences”. These changes can affect the adolescents’ feelings, thoughts, relationships and behaviour in different ways.

The effects of early or late physical maturation

As explained above, the age at which an individual reaches and passes through pubertal changes varies greatly and depends on factors such as gender, heredity, body type, nutrition and health (Atkinson 2006:4; Santrock 2006:365). The pubertal sequence for boys can begin as early as 10 years of age or as late as 13 ½ years of age and may end as early as 13 years or as late as 17 years. The normal range is thus wide enough for it to be possible that two boys of the same chronological age, could differ so much, that one could be completing the pubertal sequence before the other has even begun it. For girls, the age range for menarche is even wider, with it being considered within the normal range if it appears between the ages of nine and 15.
Gerdes (1998:154) notes that puberty generally begins earlier for girls than for boys and that early or late onset of puberty can have profound psychological and social effects, with these effects being different for boys than for girls. Early or late maturation can cause significant differences in psychological adjustment, affecting the adolescent’s body image, moods, satisfaction with appearance, relationships with parents and members of the opposite sex, and even scholastic achievement (Atkinson 2006:4).
Gerdes (1998:154) states that boys who mature early are generally taller and stronger which often results in self confidence and social approval. Atkinson (2006:4) agrees, explaining that more physically mature boys are often more satisfied with their weight and overall appearance than their less mature peers, often resulting in them having a feeling of superiority. Early onset of puberty appears to be less advantageous to girls and could even be a disadvantage as they often are not yet ready for the responses of older boys and men who see them as women (Gerdes 1998:154). While girls tend to dislike being early to mature, often feeling ashamed and embarrassed, boys tend to feel better if they mature early. Puberty frequently affects girls’ relationship with parents, with the more physically developed girls tending to talk less to their parents and having less positive feelings about family relationships than less physically developed girls (Atkinson 2006:4). A positive aspect of early maturation for girls, however, is that early maturers tend to achieve higher grades than late maturers in the same class.
Physical maturation means that adolescents often look like adults. As they mature physically, adolescent boys and girls can be bigger than their parents and capable of having children themselves, but they are not yet adults and still require the support of their parents (The Royal College of Psychiatrists 2004:1). Parents and others could be inclined to have too high expectations, especially of those who are early maturers. Gerdes (1998:154) stresses that the dropping in the age of puberty is causing a widening in the gap between physical and emotional maturity.

An increase in body awareness

The physical development of adolescence brings on a new awareness and concern about the body (Shefer 2004:75). The changes of puberty can cause adolescents to be “preoccupied with their bodies”. The significant changes of puberty may make it difficult for adolescents to achieve feelings of self-consistency and time is needed to integrate these changes (Mussen et al 1984:501). Females have to adjust to the onset of menstruation, with its accompanying physical discomfort and hormonal influences on mood, while the uncontrolled erection and ejaculation (including nocturnal emissions) may be a source of surprise and concern for males.
The adolescent’s self-image in puberty can be threatened by the physical changes of puberty and by the tendency of adolescents to make social comparisons (Focus Adolescent Services 2006:5). Once again there appears to be a gender difference in this focus on the body. While the tendency among males is to strive to develop muscular bodies, females are expected to conform to the slim ideal which is stressed in the media (Shefer 2004:75). In general, throughout puberty, girls have been found to be less happy with their bodies and to have more negative body images than boys (Santrock 2006:368). In addition to this, as puberty proceeds, girls tend to become more dissatisfied with their bodies (perhaps because of an increase in body fat) while boys tend to become more satisfied with their bodies (perhaps because of an increase in muscle mass).
Research (Santrock 2006:368; Shefer 2004:75; Focus Adolescent Services 2006: 5-7) has shown that the normal increases in the body fat of females, which occurs during puberty, can have a negative effect on the body image and self-concept of many girls, with boys and girls often being plagued with concerns about their height, weight, skin (especially acne) and general appearance. Linked to this, is the finding that eating disorders such as anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa most frequently start during adolescence, with those most at risk, being adolescents who have higher body fat percentages, who are chronically depressed, or who have much conflict in their family situations (see section 3.6.8.5).
Caradas, Lambert and Charlton (2001:111) stress that although it is often assumed that eating disorders are only present in affluent societies or middle-class families, their findings revealed that abnormal eating attitudes is equally common in South African adolescent girls from different ethnic backgrounds. They found, however, that white girls exhibit greater concerns with body image and body image dissatisfaction than mixed race or black individuals. Their findings support the idea that eating disorders are “culture-reactive rather than culture-bound phenomena” which “may transcend the boundaries of geography, socio-economic status and ethnicity”. Black and mixed race adolescents, who were previously thought to be ‘protected’ from developing eating disorders, may no longer enjoy this protection as they may find themselves in “a socio-cultural flux between traditional cultural values and values instilled by modern Western society”. Eating disorders will be discussed more fully in Chapter Three (see section 3.6.8.5).

CHAPTER 1: ORIENTATION AND OVERVIEW
1.1 INTRODUCTION
1.2 PROBLEM FORMULATION
1.3 RESEARCH QUESTION
1.4 AIMS OF RESEARCH
1.5 PARIDIGMATIC PERSPECTIVE
1.6 CLARIFICATION OF CONCEPTS
1.7 RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY
1.8 RESEARCH PROGRAMME
1.9 CONCLUSION
CHAPTER 2: ADOLESCENCE
2.1 INTRODUCTION
2.2 PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT
2.3 COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
2.4 MORAL DEVELOPMENT
2.5 PSYCHO-SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT
2.6 CONCLUSION
CHAPTER 3: PARENTING ADOLESCENTS
3.1 INTRODUCTION
3.2 THE ROLE OF PARENTS OF ADOLESCENTS
3.3 ADOLESCENT EMOTIONAL NEEDS TO BE MET BY PARENTS
3.4 PARENTING STYLES
3.5 PARENTAL CHARACTERISTICS INFLUENCING PARENTING
3.6 CHALLENGES COMMON TO PARENTS OF ADOLESCENTS
3.7.1 Working parents
3.8 CONCLUSION
CHAPTER 4: RESEARCH DESIGN
4.1 INTRODUCTION
4.2 RESEARCH APPROACH DESIGN
4.3 ETHICAL MEASURES
4.5 DATA COLLECTION
4.6 DATA PROCESSING
4.7 SUMMARY
CHAPTER 5: RESEARCH FINDINGS
5.1 INTRODUCTION
5.2 COMPOSITION OF FOCUS GROUPS
5.3 FINDINGS
5.4 SUMMARY
CHAPTER 6: CONCLUSIONS, RECOMMENDATIONS AND LIMITATIONS
6.1 INTRODUCTION
6.2 CONCLUSIONS
6.3 RECOMMENDATIONS
6.4 LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY
6.5 SUMMARY
BIBLIOGRAPHY
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