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Definition of the concept of sacrifice
Sacrificial performances play a significant role in the religions of the world. “They are most of the time very complicated ritual performances through which communication between worshippers and spirit beings may be made viable, impeded and severed” (Von Stuckrad, 2006:1657). Attempts to define the “concept of sacrifice” have revealed that it is “problematic”, given the fact that such differentiations in “religious phenomena” are known under “sacrifice” as “Jesus’ sacrifice of atonement, votive gifts, and animal sacrifices, that are basically distinct, in the intentions of actors as well as in the main theological picture and faith systems” (Von Stuckrad, 2006:1657).
Van Baal claims that there is a difference of meaning between sacrifice and offering: “an offering is that act of presenting something to a supernatural being, a sacrifice an offering accompanied by the ritual killing of the object of the offering” (Van Baal, 1976:161). This meaning seems too narrow, since killing is only applicable to “living beings, animals, human beings and not to some other sacrificial materials such as food stuffs, drink offering and libations”. A “supernatural being with supernatural power” constitutes the most critical element that the worshipper desires to relate to and stay in communion with (Eliade, 1987:544). According to Eliade, bloodless sacrifices also include “consecration of human beings and animals” (Eliade, 1987:546).
A sacrifice is” a cultic act in which objects were set apart or consecrated and offered to a god or some other supernatural power” (Fahert, 1977:128b). Therefore, the ideas of “bloodless and bloody offerings” (sacrifices) are to be taken into account. Blood functions as an important “power-laden substance that brings fertility”; it is moistened over the fields in order to increase the harvest. “Head-hunting and human sacrifices belong to the same complex of ideas and rites”. The compound term “human sacrifices” has to do with all “cultic killings” of human beings. This also includes “self-inflicted death…the complete laying down of one’s life in order to pay a debt or to make atonement” (Obstat, 1967:831).
Blood rites are often combined with fertility concepts. Usually, blood sacrifices are primarily made from “domesticated animals” (sheep, goats, cattle, pigs, fowl, horses and camels). The objective of the sacrifice will determine the characteristics of the sacrificial animal. Brightly coloured animal victims are sacrificed to the divinity of the sky, and black animals to the divinity of the “underworld and the dead, or to feared demonic beings” (Eliade, 1987:545-546 – see Zulu sacrificial thoughts later on in this dissertation). Therefore, let us now look at the classification of the concept of sacrifice.
CHAPTER ONE
1.1 INTRODUCTION
1.1.1 Definition of the Concept Of Sacrifice
1.1.2 Clarification of the Concept
1.1.3 How can Sacrifice be classified
1.1.4 Events occurring in Everyday Life
1.1.5 Human and Divine Benefits of Sacrifice
1.1.6 Sacrificial Ideologies
1.2 SACRIFICIAL INTERPRETATIONS
1.2.1 Sacrifice as a Gift Exchange and Renunciation
1.2.2 The Sacramental Meal
1.2.3 Sacrifice as a Communicative Act
1.2.4 Sacrifice as a purifying Power
1.2.5 Spiritualised Modes of Sacrifice
1.3 PROBLEM STATEMENT
1.4 DELINEATION OF THE STUDY
1.5 MOTIVATIONS FOR THE STUDY
1.6 HYPOTHESIS
1.7 METHODOLOGY
1.8 CLARIFICATION OF SOME TERMS
1.9 CONCLUSION
CHAPTER TWO: HEURISTIC FRAMEWRK
2.1 INTRODUCTION
2.1.1 Perspectives from Worldviews
2.2 [PLUS EVENT]
2.2.1 The Issue of Intra-and Interaction between Euro-American Christianity and the African Traditional Worldview
2.3 AFRICAN TRADITIONAL WORLDVIEWS (OR RELIGIONS)
2.3.1 Is there something such as African Traditional Religion?
2.3.1.1 The Reality of African Traditional Religion
2.3.1.2 African Traditional Religion as a Stem of Christianity
2.3.2 Literature Review and Qualitative Research are both Necessary: Why?
2.3.3 The Emergency of Christianity
2.3.3.1 The Emergence of the Church
2.3.3.2 The Nature of Christianity
2.3.3.3 Beliefs of Orthodox Christianity: An African Religion
2.3.3.4 Christianity and Africa’s Historic Relationship
2.3.3.5 The Practice of Christianity
2.3.4 Christianity as a Point of Focus
2.3.5 Mission Perspectives in Africa
2.3.5.1 Mission Perspectives in the Republic of South Africa
i) Apartheid and the Churches
ii) Reasons for the Rise of Independent Churches
2.4 SCIENTIFIC THEORIES ON BLOOD SACRIFICE
2.4.1 Introduction
2.5 CONCLUSION
CHAPTER THREE: XHOSA PEOPLE
3.1 INTRODUCTION
3.1.1 The Quest of Xhosa People
3.1.2 Xhosa People’s Distinctiveness
3.1.3 Xhosa People’s Present Composition: Kinship and Lineage System
3.1.4 Kinship Principles Relevant to Sacrificial Rituals
3.1.5 Xhosa People’s Cosmology
3.1.6 The Supreme Being
3.2 CONCLUSI
CHAPTER FOUR: SACRIFICES IN THE XHOSA TRADITION
4.1 INTRODUCTION
4.2 SACRIFICES IN THE XHOSA TRADITIONAL SETTING
4.3 SACRIFICE IN XHOSA LANGUAGE
4.3.1 Sacrifice and Ritual
4.3.2 Sacrifice Categorisation and Classificatio
4.3.3 Birth Sacrifice
4.3.3.1 Ukufuthwa ( to be steamed)
4.3.3.2 Imbeleko or Umbingelelo (a Thing with which to carry on the Back or Sacrifice)
4.3.3.3 Ingqithi (Amputation of the first Phalanx of one Finger of the Left Hand)
4.3.4 Initiation Sacrifice
4.5 THE NATURE OF XHOSA SACRIFICE
4.5.1 Purpose
4.5.2 Essence
4.5.3 Objectives and Moods
4.6 CONCLUSION
CHAPTER FIVE: ZULU AND TSONGA PEOPLES’ SACRIFICIAL IDEAS
5.1 INTRODUCTION
5.2 GENERAL SYMBOLIC CODE
5.3 CONCLUSION
CHAPTER SIX: SACRIFICE AMONG THE MODERN XHOSA
CHAPTER SEVEN: EXAMPLES FROM ELSEWHERE IN AFRICA
CHAPTER EIGHT: SACRIFICE AND CHRISTIANITY TODAY
CHAPTER NINE: SACRIFICE IN THE OLD TESTAMENT AS A RELIGIOUS FRAMEWORK FOR UNDERSTANDING SACRIFICE IN HEBREWS
CHAPTER TEN: THE SACRIFICE OF JESUS IN HEBREWS: AN EXEGETICAL APPROACH
CHAPTER ELEVEN: COMPARISON WITH THE MATERIAL FROM AFRICA
CHAPTER TWELVE: CONCLUSION
CHAPTER THIRTEEN: WORKS CONSULTED
