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CHAPTER 3 Middle Childhood as Developmental Phase
Learn from yesterday, live for today, hope for tomorrow. The important thing is not to stop questioning. ~Albert Einstein
INTRODUCTION
Middle childhood development signifies the phase between early childhood and adolescence. The focus of this study is on the development of emotional awareness within the child in this phase. It is therefore imperative to identify, explore and understand the vital elements that this developmental phase entails. In order to understand emotional awareness within middle childhood, this chapter will solely focus on the middle childhood phase before emotional awareness can be brought into the picture. Although emotional awareness is the essence of the study, in this chapter emotional development is addressed in general as it is present during middle childhood. A detailed investigation on emotional awareness is thoroughly discussed in chapter 4.
A child‘s transition from total physical and psychological dependency to self-sufficiency and independence occurs gradually. Development and maturing during childhood can be understood as periods of transition and reorganization – and is described by Thomson, Rudolph and Henderson (2004:11) as ―a lifelong process of growing, maturing and change‖.
Many different theories on the development of children are available and mainly describe the development and change in different stages of development. Finnan (2008:12) points out that for each of the stages theorists assigned a name and set an age range that should fall within each particular stage. Within several of these theoretical constructs the stage in which upper elementary school children resort is considered transitional, thus the intermediary between two other phases. This intermediary or ―middle‖ childhood phase includes children of six to twelve years of age (Harold & Hay, 2003:7).
Cooper (2005:5) states that Freud called middle childhood the latency period. It was thought that in these years of innocence and tranquillity, children simply refined the skills they acquired in early childhood. Finnan (2008:12) states that the term latency brings to mind ―dormancy or a rest from one extreme stage and preparation for future trials‖. Cooper (2005:5) postulates that consequently, policies and programs focusses on providing support resources and opportunities from infancy to pre-school years and again in the risky years of adolescence. However in the middle-childhood years, children are left without structural provisions to accommodate their changing needs.
Finnan (2008:12) and Cooper (2005:5) corroborate that middle childhood is the phase where children‘s worlds expand as they begin to experience the environment outside the home as it generally marks the child‘s first significant entrance into institutions beyond the family. They begin school, learn to participate in their wider community and children and families increasingly navigate across multiple contexts such as home, work, school, peers, sports and religious activities. Cooper (2005:12) postulates that by giving attention to children in middle childhood we may take action to help children stay on track and also boost those who may otherwise never get back on track.
From the opinions voiced in the above it is evident that the middle childhood phase has an important part to play in the healthy development of children on their path to adulthood. This research study also focuses on middle childhood and it is of significance to take note of the theoretical viewpoints on child development with specific emphasis on development in the middle childhood phase, developmental areas, and developmental tasks which should be mastered during middle childhood.
THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES REGARDING CHILD DEVELOPMENT
In order to fit the middle childhood phase in its proper place regarding the child‘s development, we need to take note of the different theoretical viewpoints concerning childhood development per se.
Many theories of child development exist and many different perspectives and opinions are therefore offered. Taking note of the theoretical perspectives regarding different areas of child development is necessary to comprehend where middle childhood development and, later on, emotions and emotional awareness has its place.
This is confirmed by Aldridge and Goldman (2007:96-99) in their reference to the numerous theories of development that have influenced educational practices during the 20th century and that postmodern conceptions have changed the way we think of children and how to educate them.
Borland, Laybourn, Hill and Brown (1998:129) observed that the first stage‘s theories concentrated on relationships and the later theories focused more on the intellectual development of children.
Three classical stage theorists, namely Freud, Erikson and Piaget, made a significant contribution to the fundamental perception of the development of children and are hence summarized as follows:
Freud
Aldridge and Goldman (2007:97) postulate that:
Freud’s (1935) psychoanalytic theory served as the theoretical basis for analysis of behaviour disorders during the 1920s through the 1940s. Freud viewed behaviour problems displayed by children as symbolic manifestations of unresolved conflict which he said often emanated from early caregiver-child interactions‖.
According to Gestwicki and Bertrand (2012:188) Freud believed that basic personality is formed in the first few years in life and he developed five stages of development from infancy to adolescence.
Erikson
Cherry (sa), a child psychologist with at Bachelor of Science in Psychology from Idaho State University and a Master of Science in Education from the Boise State University, highlights that Freud‘s famous work influenced a number of other psychoanalysts, including theorist Erik Erikson. While Erikson‘s theory shared some similarities with Freud’s, it is dramatically different in many ways. Erikson believed that social interaction and experience played a decisive role in children‘s development.
Gestwicki and Bertrand (2012:188) state that Erikson was one of the first to suggest that children develop in the context of their societies, expectations and prohibitions. His eight-stage theory of human development describes this process from infancy through death. During each stage, people are faced with a developmental conflict that impacts later functioning and further growth. Cherry (sa) points to Erikson‘s indication that success or failure in dealing with the conflicts at each stage can impact overall functioning.
Piaget
According to Gestwicki and Bertrand (2012:188), Piaget‘s theories dominated developmental child psychology research and educational practices since the 1960s. Cherry (sa) states that ―theorist Jean Piaget suggested that children think differently than adults and proposed a stage theory of cognitive development. He was the first to note that children play an active role in gaining knowledge of the world‖. Gestwicki and Bertrand (2012:188) indicate further that Piaget‘s theory suggests that children actively construct their own knowledge as they manipulate and explore their own world. He believed that children adapt their thinking to include their new ideas and that this additional information furthers their understanding.
The above discussion of a theoretical foundation for child development gives us a broad perspective of the academic thought regarding this issue. From this broad perspective the focus of the next section will be specifically on the middle childhood phase as this study concentrates on children in their middle childhood developmental phase.
MIDDLE CHILDHOOD AS DEVELOPMENTAL PHASE
In the previous discussion it was indicated how the middle childhood phase was observed as a stagnant phase characterized by latency after the eventful development of the early childhood years and in waiting for adolescence. The argument that was raised in the first section of this chapter in this regard is supported by Click and Parker (2012:83-84) in their statement that ―latency phase‖ indicates a period of latent or quiet feelings. Cooper (2005:12) disagrees with this statement and focuses on the aspects which point out that the middle childhood developmental phase indeed does have an important role and does matter in studying child development. She describes middle childhood to be ―the time when children meet different overlapping contexts which they need to negotiate as they move into adolescence and adulthood‖.
Parrish (2010:41) indicates that aspects of academic accomplishment and skill building are often the focus of children‘s attention and efforts during the middle childhood phase. School occupies the majority of most children‘s weekday and provides a crucial backdrop to academic and social achievements in middle childhood. Thomson et al. (2004:11) agree that children in middle childhood most definitely experience almost daily changes on physical, cognitive, social and emotional levels and that indicators of their success are their secure attachments, satisfying relationships and ffective coping skills.
Thomson et al. (2004:12) conclude that children may display certain symptoms at one stage of development and completely different symptomatic behaviour in another. It is thus important to clarify in this chapter what the middle childhood developmental phase entails and why it is a significant stage, especially with regard to a child‘s emotional development.
Though some common themes and concerns apply generally in middle childhood namely children between 6-12 years of age, it is important to note that the life of eight-year-old children are clearly quite different from that of children approaching their teens. Borland et al. (1998:25-26) indicate that developmental psychology points to the growing capacity of children as they get older, to expand, reflect, decentre and generalise. Their studies, although from 1998, supply a detailed and comprehensive exposition of developmental differences between different age groups within the middle childhood developmental phase. Borland, Laybourn, Hill and Brown‘s study is quoted by many recent authors (Churchill, 2011:226; Scourfield, 2006:156; Finnan, 2008:12) and thus appears to be judged as still relevant in current writing on this matter.
Five to six years old: Children in this age bracket are mostly concerned with their own, immediate and concrete needs and advantages. Feelings of happiness in this age group were derived from sweets, toys or trips to McDonalds‘, while unhappiness was caused by having these kinds of things denied.
Seven years old: Children in this age group show signs of a shift to relationships and achievement, and were aware of a widening social network. Happiness was now connected to family holidays, activities of various kinds and having friends over to play. Negative emotions become more complex and relationship based. Punishment and reprimands by parents are resented and cause anger. This is also a peak period for fears, e.g. nightmares and ghosts.
Nine years old: The importance of relationships becomes a growing consciousness. Having friends are a constituent of happiness, losing them the most common source of misery. Adults are losing their aura of omnipotence and are discovered to have feet of clay, so that unfair treatment by parents and educators was now a major source of anger. Achievements in clubs and sports are vital and fears become more reality-based like bullies, being home alone or parental arguments.
Eleven to twelve years old: Children in this age group carry the concerns of nine year old children at a more sophisticated level. Friends are still central and now in many circumstance the major confidants. Individual and family issues are still important but group identity and achievements were increasingly important. They become much more critical of adults and discriminate between them: some educators could be trusted to deal with a situation and other are regarded as unimpressive. A sense of injustice develops, extended to the wider world, e.g. world hunger, wars, racism, poverty and cruelty to animals.
Acknowledgements
Abstract
Opsomming
CHAPTER 1 GENERAL INTRODUCTION
1.1 INTRODUCTION
1.2 PROBLEM FORMULATION
1.3 GOAL AND OBJECTIVES OF THE RESEARCH STUDY
1.3.1 Goal
1.3.2 Objectives
1.4 HYPOTHESIS
1.5 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
1.6 LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY
1.7 DEFINITION OF MAIN CONCEPTS
1.7.1 Awareness
1.7.2 Emotions
1.7.3 Emotional awareness
1.7.4 The Middle Childhood Developmental Phase
1.7.5 Program
1.8 COMPOSITION OF THE RESEARCH REPORT
1.9 SUMMARY
CHAPTER 2 GESTALT APPROACH AS THE THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK OF THE STUDY
2.1 INTRODUCTION
2.2 RATIONALE FOR THE GESTALT APPROACH AS THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK FOR THE STUDY
2.3 CONCEPTS OF THE GESTALT APPROACH
2.3.1 Introduction
2.3.2 Gestalt
2.3.3 Figure and Ground
2.3.4 Awareness
2.3.5 Self-regulation / Homeostasis
2.3.6 Contact
2.3.7 Topdog/Underdog
2.3.8 Unfinished Business
2.3.9 Present Centeredness
2.4 FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES AS POINT OF DEPARTURE OF THE GESTALT APPROACH
2.4.1 Introduction
2.4.2 Gestalt as Phenomenological-Existential Approach
2.4.3 Awareness
2.4.4 Structure of the Personality
2.5 GOALS OF THE GESTALT APPROACH
2.6 SUMMARY
CHAPTER 3 MIDDLE CHILDHOOD AS DEVELOPMENTAL PHASE
3.1 INTRODUCTION
3.2 THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES REGARDING CHILD DEVELOPMENT
3.3 MIDDLE CHILDHOOD AS DEVELOPMENTAL PHASE
3.4 AREAS OF DEVELOPMENT DURING MIDDLE CHILDHOOD
3.4.1 Physical Development
3.4.2 Cognitive Development
3.4.3 Emotional Development
3.4.4 Social Development
3.5 DEVELOPMENTAL TASKS IN MIDDLE CHILDHOOD 58
3.5.1 Self-Image
3.5.2 Relationships
3.5.3 Gender Role Identification
3.5.4 Cognitive and Language Development
3.5.5 Moral Judgment and Behaviour
3.5.6 Emotional Development
3.6 SUMMARY
CHAPTER 4 NEUROLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT AND ITS INFLUENCE ON CHILDREN’S ABILITY TO LEARN
4.1 INTRODUCTION
4.2 THE BRAIN: CONTROL SYSTEM OF THE HUMAN BODY AND MIND
4.2.1 Development of the Brain
4.2.2 Brain Structure
4.2.3 Brain Functioning and its Developmental Effect on the Child’s Future
4.3 EMOTIONAL EDUCATION VS. BRAIN FUNCTIONING
4.3.1 Brain- friendly Education
4.3.2 Left or Right Brain Dominance
4.4 SUMMARY
CHAPTER 5 EMOTIONAL AWARENESS
5.1 INTRODUCTION
5.2 EMOTION IN GENERAL
5.2.1 Conceptualization of the Concept Emotion
5.2.2 The Concept Emotion from Different Perspectives
5.2.2.1 Biological Perspective
5.2.2.2 Sociological Perspective
5.2.2.3 Psychological Perspective
5.2.2.4 Cognitive Perspective
5.2.3 Theories on Emotions
5.2.3.1 Early Theories of Emotion
5.2.3.2 Current Theory of Emotion
5.3 ASPECTS RELATED TO EMOTIONS IN CHILDREN
5.3.1 The Importance of Emotional Development for Children
5.3.2 Emotional Awareness and Emotional Intelligence During Middle Childhood
5.3.2.1 Emotional Awareness
5.3.2.2 Emotional Intelligence
5.3.3 Levels of Emotional Awareness
5.3.4 Emotional Awareness as a Cognitive Ability
5.4 SUMMARY
CHAPTER 6 EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT WITHIN THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM
6.1 INTRODUCTION
6.2 RATIONALE FOR INCORPORATING EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM
6.3 AN EDUCATIONAL ENVIRONMENT THAT WOULD ENHANCE THE EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT OF THE CHILD IN MIDDLE CHILDHOOD
6.3.1 Conditions for Learning
6.3.2 Role of the Educator
6.3.3 Effective Learning
6.4 EFFECTIVE SCHOOL SETTING
6.5 SUMMARY
CHAPTER 7 EMOTIONAL AWARENESS PROGRAM
7.1 INTRODUCTION
7.2 GESTALT PLAY THERAPY
7.3 EMOTIONAL AWARENESS PROGRAM
7.4 SUMMARY
CHAPTER 8 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
8.1 INTRODUCTION
8.2 RESEARCH APPROACH
8.3 TYPE OF RESEARCH
8.4 RESEARCH DESIGN
8.5 POPULATION, SAMPLE AND SAMPLING METHODS
8.6 DATA-COLLECTION METHOD
8.7 DATA ANALYSIS
8.8 ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS
8.9 SUMMARY
CHAPTER 9 EMPIRICAL FINDINGS
9.1 INTRODUCTION
9.2 BIOGRAPHICAL PROFILE OF RESPONDENTS
9.3 EMPIRICAL FINDINGS
9.4 DISCUSSION OF RESULTS
9.5 SUMMARY
CHAPTER 10 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
10.1 INTRODUCTION
10.2 CONCLUSIONS
10.3 RECOMMENDATIONS
10.4 ACCOMPLISHMENT OF GOAL AND OBJECTIVES 235
10.5 CONCLUDING REMARKS
REFERENCES
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