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Development of PRA
I chose Participatory Reflection and Action (PRA) as methodological paradigm. Participatory methodologies in the developmental practice have evolved rapidly since the mid-1970’s (Chambers, 2007). PRA is an outgrowth of formative program evaluation and action research models. Often PRA is seen as an extention of the ‘participant-observer’ research strategy, prevalent in sociology and social psychology (Rogers & Palmer-Erbs, 1994). PRA is often regarded as a later demonstration of Rapid Rural Appraisal (RRA), Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) and Participatory Learning and Action (PLA) (Chambers 1992; 1994; 2007). These approaches, methods, behaviours and relationships were developed to find out about local context and life (Chambers, 2007) by a multidisciplinary team that also comprise of community members that facilitates an alternative learning experience (Chambers 1992; 1994). PRA originated in the 1980’s to the 1990’s in India and East Africa originally in the field of Argiculture (Chambers 1992; 1994). PRA was developed as a need arised in psychology to redirect its energy from a ‘fact-gathering’ approach to a more formative approach in an attempt to solve social problems (Rogers & Palmer-Erbs, 1994). Empowerment of local people and maximising human resources is the main purpose for the development of PRA as it can promote mobilisation and development at local level (Chambers 1992; 1994). PRA is increasingly used in rural and urban situations to emancipate and empower disempowered people (Baum, MacDougall & Smith, 2006).
Prolonged engagement
Another validity procedure that I employed in the study was to visit the research site over a period of three years, between 2013 and 2015, thus engaging in the research setting for a prolonged period of time and being personally in contact with the participants and activities regarding the case and continuously reflecting, observing and revising the meaning-making processes (Schwandt, 2000:445). This builds trust and rapport with the participants to enable accessing relevant disclosing information. Furthermore, prolonged engagement enabled me to observe and learn about the culture of the participants (Guba & Lincoln, 2005; Merriam, 1998). In addition continued observation in the research setting enabled me as the researcher to verify and compare data with observational data. Staying true to my epistemological paradigm, constructivism, staying prolonged periods in the field will give opportunity for pluralistic perspectives from participants regarding the phenomenon being studied (Creswell & Miller, 2000:128; Houghton, Casey, Shaw & Murphy, 2013). Saturation of data was achieved when no new data emerged from data sources (Houghton, Casey, Shaw & Murphy, 2013). I visited the research site over a period of three years to gain comprehensive understanding of the phenomena under investigation (see Appendix L for the research schedule).
Chapter 1 Introduction to the study
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Aim and research questions
1.3 Rationale
1.4 Contextualising the study: a HEI partnership with rural schools
1.5 Clarification of key concepts
1.6 Paradigmatic assumption
1.7 Conceptual framework and working assumptions
1.8 Research design and methodology
1.9 Conclusion
Chapter 2 Literature review
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Situating the study: education in rural South Africa
2.3 Situating the study in teacher resilience research
2.4 Teacher working conditions necessitate the need for teacher
2.5 Situating the study in association literature
2.6 Conclusion
Chapter 3 Research design and methodology
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Research design: comparative case study
3.3 Context of the schools as cases
3.4 Selection of schools and teacher participants
3.5 Data generation and documentation
3.6 Data analysis and interpretation
3.7 Rigour of the study
3.8 Ethical considerations
3.9 Conclusion
Chapter 4 Theme 1: Protective resources and risk factors in rural schools with or without associations with a higher education institution
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Subtheme
4.3 Literature control
Chapter 5 Theme 2: Protective resources and risk factors when a rural school has an association with a higher education institution
5.1 Introduction
5.3 Literature control
Chapter 6 Theme 3: Expectations to buffer teacher resilience by means of future association with a higher education institution
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Subtheme 3.1: Teachers have positive expectations
6.3 Subtheme 3.2: Teacher concerns about a potential association with
6.4 Introduction to literature control of Theme 3
6.5 Conclusion
Chapter 7 Conclusions and recommendations
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Conclusions in terms of research questions
7.3 Primary research question
7.4 Evidence-based amended conceptual framework: HEI
7.5 Reflecting on limitations of the study
7.6 Recommendations
7.7 Conclusion 337
