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A chronological view of teaching and learning theories
Behaviourists, such as Skinner and Tennant, assumed that behaviour was shaped and moulded according to measured and objective standards. Immediate feedback, which reinforced positive responses by giving a reward or dissuaded negative stimulus by meeting out punishment, was employed to reinforce a correct response (Dabbagh, 2006). Facts, concepts and theories had to be learnt and learners had to be able to demonstrate acquired procedural skills. Knowledge and skills were transferred as learned behaviours, relying on extrinsic motivation in the mastering of the required skill set. Earlier computer-assisted-instruction (CIA) capitalised on this learning pattern and was used by teachers to reinforce learning, keep track of performances and provide feedback to those involved in the process (Dede, 2008). Factual knowledge was emphasised in these programs by repetitive drill-and-practice exercises. Used today, this form of computerassisted- instruction, will most likely be found lacking as a technique in the current curriculum. Cognitive theorists, amongst them Piaget, Hutchins and Wenger, advocate an approach which focuses on internal cognitive growth with the pedagogical focus being the transmission of information (Conole, et al., 2004). Today the power of ICT is harnessed to create learning connected opportunities which are rich in resources, where knowledge is shared and cognition distributed. The Constructivist theory is based on the assumption that the learner will self-instruct according to his level of awareness and mastery. This theory is further based on the supposition that learners discover skills through experimentation and practice. Earlier learning theories mainly focused on the progress of individual learning and the acquisition of cognitive skills whilst neglecting the social dimension (Chan & van Aalst, 2008).
During constructivist learning activities teachers are encouraged to act as guides and learners as sense makers. The role of the teacher must be altered from authoritative to collaborative.
Different components of constructivism can be emphasised and a parallel can be drawn between the radical and social aspects of this theory. Von Glaserfeld (1996), supported by Dabbagh (2006), stipulates the underpinnings of both aspects as follows:
• knowledge as a whole, not only the learner’s subjective knowledge, is deliberated;
• methodological approaches are required to be more reflexive;
• the focus of the learner concern is broadened to include cognition, beliefs and conceptions of knowledge;
• the focus of teacher concerns includes diagnostic skills, beliefs and personal theories;
• others have realities independent of our own and these realities cannot be accepted as being fixed and
• an awareness of the social construction of knowledge.
Alessi and Trollip (2001) direct designers of constructivist learning events to create educational environments that enable the construction of knowledge. They suggest ways of accomplishing this goal and emphasize the actions and thinking of learners in the process of active learning.
They advocate the use of discovery or guided approaches to learning which in turn are anchored in the real world, thereby drawing on authentic learning environments.
The social constructivist theory relies heavily on the collaborative nature of learning, encouraging co-operation amongst learners often resulting in many group work activities. Variables impacting on the effectiveness of the group include size, dynamics, gender, cultures, language skills and levels of competence in the set task. During a collaborative learning event each individual member of the group has the opportunity to add value to the final product (Panitz, 1997). The collaborative approach has a lot to offer due to its rich history of theory, research and use within the classroom. Collaboration maximizes learning, which in turn ensures healthy cognitive and social development, amongst other many other important instructional outcomes (Johnson & Johnson, 2000).
In short, behaviourists believe that learning can only be measured in altered behaviour whereas cognitivists believe that learning occurs when learners add new concepts and ideas to their cognitive structure. In contrast, constructivists hold forth that learners individually construct knowledge for themselves. All three learning theories have significant implications when designing learning events and activities (Reddi & Mishra, 2003).
Principles of learning
In a recent study Callaghan (2008) researched teaching principles which contribute to the success of learning. She selected four well documented sources and compiled a list of the ten most common teaching principles. These sources cover the fields of Higher Education, Primary and Secondary Education and online instruction with regards to distance education. Table 2-2 below presents the ten teaching principles researched and then re-applied to different educational settings (including online teaching and learning, computer-assisted teaching and learning, teaching and learning in various subject fields). Untangling the principles of teaching that contribute to the success of learning becomes more complex when one harnesses the emerging technologies in teaching and learning. A significant contribution to this area of interest is the study conducted by Kerns, Elhoua, Sterling, Grant, McGowan, Rubash, Neelly and Wolfe (2005). They found that all the principles mentioned in Table 2-2 above, can be amplified with the use of appropriate technology that aligns the teaching and learning activities and relevant assessment tasks which gauges the learner’s processes of meaning construction.
Contemporary beliefs regarding learning have moved away from knowledge transmission models which advocate the mere imparting of information to generative knowledge models where knowledge is negotiated between parties and transformed learning occurs (Chan & van Aalst, 2008). In the process of meaning-making, technology is roped in to support the communication and co-construction of new knowledge resulting in new communities of practice (Lave & Wenger, 1991).
CHAPTER 1. INNOVATIVE TEACHING
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Background information
1.3 Problem statement
1.4 Motivation for this research study
1.5 Research questions
1.6 Research process presented
1.7 Study development phases
1.8 Constraints
1.9 Ethical considerations
1.10 Anticipated benefits and significance of the contribution
1.11 Map of thesis
1.12 Summary
CHAPTER 2. TO ESTABLISH THEORETICAL SENSITIVITY
2.1 Introduction
2.2 The framework of the study
2.3 The technosphere: Emerging technologies
2.4 The ecosphere: Professional and organisational learning
2.5 Sociosphere: Critical philosophy
CHAPTER 3. DATA SET AND ANALYSIS PROCEDURES
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Why Grounded Theory
3.3 Some bacKground information to this research
3.4 Data gathering considerations
3.5 Data Capturing
3.6 Research documents
3.7 Data analysis
3.8 Emerging categories presented
3.9 Summary
CHAPTER 4. SOCIOSPHERE
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Sociosphere: Critical philosophy
4.3 Professional burden
4.4 Teacher as Bricoleur
4.5 Moral Cohesion
4.6 Summary
CHAPTER 5. TECHNOSPHERE
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Technosphere: Emerging technologies
5.3 Technology implications
5.4 Innovation strategy
5.5 Reflexive pedagogy
5.6 Innovation negotiations in context
5.7 Summary
CHAPTER 6. ECOSPHERE
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Ecosphere: Professional and Organisational learning
6.3 Skills transfer
6.4 Organisational change
6.5 Teachers leave
6.6 RESPONSIVE GOVERNANCE
6.7 Summary
CHAPTER 7. CONCLUSIONS AND REFLECTIONS
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Research presentation
7.3 New insights: Theory development
7.4 Reflections
7.5 Judging the credibility of Study
7.6 Writing sequence of the study
7.7 Personal reflection: Comments on the pragmatic side of this research
7.8 Limitations and restrictions of the study
7.9 Possible future research
7.10 Concluding remarks
References
