DIGITAL SCHOLARLY RESOURCES

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INTRODUCTION

As indicated in Chapter 1, this study is aimed at answering the research question – what are the factors affecting the effective use of free and low-cost e-resources by academic staff, postgraduate students and information specialists in the scientific, technological and medical disciplines at universities in Zimbabwe?
Also as hinted in Chapter 1, many factors influence the use of e-resources at universities; access to such resources is especially important (Ajiboye & Bankole, 2013; Bhat & Mudhol, 2014; Kumar & Reddy, 2016). This chapter seeks to establish the status of e-resources available in tertiary education institutions in developing countries and especially in Africa. More specifically, it focuses on what has been reported about access, problems with access, attempts to solve the problems, and especially the effective use of free and low-cost e-resources in tertiary institutions. Although acknowledging reports from an international spectrum, the emphasis is on developing countries, especially Africa. Other factors influencing the use of scholarly e-resources, such as inadequate user skills, lack of culture of doing research, and the net generation effect are dealt with in Chapter 3.
To put the problem of access to e-resources and the use of resources in context, this chapter starts by stressing the importance of tertiary education in developing countries and the important role academic libraries associated with tertiary education institutions play. The strengths of and concerns about electronic library resources in African academic libraries are briefly highlighted.
Studies conducted on access to information at tertiary education institutions in developing countries are reviewed with special focus on studies in Africa, and access to scholarly publications which, as explained in Chapter 1, can be available as e-resources, and may include e-journals, e-books and video materials. To put this in context, a distinction is drawn between developing and developed countries, with a brief reference to studies on access to information in the later chapters. Studies on African institutions are dealt with in detail, with reference made to specific types of e-resources and the different ways to access specifically e-journals. As discussed in Chapter 1, reference to e-resources by researchers is key in the development of new knowledge. Studies focusing on problems experienced with access to e-resources at tertiary institutions in developing countries are then discussed. To put this in context, studies of developed countries are also briefly mentioned.
The chapter ends by highlighting attempts to improve access to e-resources at tertiary institutions in Africa, again with a brief reference to developed countries. Other factors, apart from access, influencing the use and non-use of e-resources will be dealt with in detail in Chapter 3. Chapter 3 focuses on the impact of different disciplines on use of e-resources and the level of technology adoption by different user groups, as well as findings on information-seeking behaviour and user preferences for e-resources at academic institutions. This study started in 2009. Literature around the time, as well as more recent studies, is thus analysed in this chapter and the next.

TERTIARY EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES

Tertiary education is more than the capstone of the traditional education pyramid − it is a critical pillar of human development worldwide (World Bank Report, 2002; Salmi, 2003; Materu, 2007). No doubt, the development of tertiary education is critical both in developed and developing countries. It can play a catalytic role in helping developing and transitional countries rise to the challenges of the knowledge economy. A strong correlation exists between participation in tertiary education and the level of economic development of nations (Mikhail, 2008; Fisher & Scott, 2011; Spaull, 2013). The terms “developing country” and “transitional country” are explained in section 1.8 in Chapter 1.
Tertiary education is vital to the growth of any country, and developing countries have been investing in tertiary education for decades (Altbach & Salmi, 2011; Fisher & Scott, 2011; Spaull, 2013). Universities are clearly a key part of tertiary education. The diverse and growing set of public and private tertiary institutions in every country, including colleges, technical training institutes, community colleges, nursing schools, research laboratories, centres of excellence, distance learning centres, and many more in addition to universities, forms a network of institutions that, according to the World Bank Report of 2002, support the production of higher-order capacity necessary for development (World Bank Report, 2002; Salmi, 2003; Michail, 2008; Fisher & Scott, 2011).
All over the world tertiary institutions face challenges such as overcrowding due to increased student enrolment, inadequate funding leading to inadequate facilities, and overloaded faculty resulting in production of low quality graduates (Sawyerr, 2004a; Teferra & Altbach, 2004; Juma, 2005; Gioan, 2006; Materu, 2007; Thiaw, 2007; Tilak, 2011; Spaull, 2013). Concerns about tertiary education also apply to Southern Africa (SARUA, 2013; Spaull, 2013). In Zimbabwe, tertiary education has not been spared the economic downturn during the past few years (Government of Zimbabwe, 2008; Musarurwa, 2011; Chikwanha, 2014; Mugwisi, 2015).
Tertiary education in Zimbabwe is about eighty-five years old, having started with the Polytechnics of Bulawayo and Harare, both founded in 1927 (Darko-Ampem, 2005). It has expanded rapidly since 1980 (Musarurwa, 2011). As discussed in Chapter 1, there are 14 universities operating in the country, with over 60 000 students (AET Africa Portal, 2014) (www.aet-africa.org). Problems of overcrowding, inadequate infrastructure such as laboratories, library and ICT facilities (Mbambo, 2001; Government of Zimbabwe, 2008; Chikwanha, 2014) and lack of access to up-to-date international research knowledge (Mbambo, 2006; Zanamwe, Rupere & Kufandirimbwa, 2013; Malapela & De Jager, 2015) have been reported at these universities. These problems are explored in more detail in the next chapter

Challenges in tertiary education in developing countries

According to the World Bank’s 2002 report, aptly titled Constructing Knowledge Societies: New Challenges for Tertiary Education, problems of quality and lack of resources are compounded by the new realities faced by higher education, as higher education institutions battle to cope with ever-increasing student numbers. These problems are more pronounced in developing countries. The report indicates that among these unresolved challenges are the need to expand tertiary education coverage in a sustainable way, inequalities of access and outcomes, problems of educational quality and relevance, and rigid governance structures and management practices.
Cooksey, Levy and Mkude (2003), Teferra and Altbach (2004), Kapur and Crowley (2008) and Mahgoub and Alawad (2014) all offer similar arguments about African higher education institutions and highlight the problem of insufficient and sometimes declining funding, which is often compounded by the inefficient use of available resources.
Reports and papers by Sawyerr (2004a), Teferra and Altbach (2004), Juma (2005), Thiaw (2007), Kapur and Crowley (2008) and Mahgoub and Alawad (2014) also point to the problems of (i) failing to keep curricula updated in order to meet the needs of local industries (Sawyerr, 2004a), and (ii) research that does not succeed in addressing the problems of local communities (Juma, 2005), and (iii) academic staff at postgraduate level who are generally overloaded with teaching, and the difficulty of balancing research and teaching (Thiaw, 2007; Kapur & Crowley, 2008; Cloete, Bailey & Pillay, 2011; Oyewo & Bello, 2014; Ukachi, Onuoha & Nwachukwu, 2014; Dulle, 2015).
Some of these serious problems are common to tertiary education institutions in many African countries; they are often intense and are exacerbated by lack of funds (Cooksey, Levy & Mkude, 2003; Teferra & Altbach, 2004; Manuh, Gariba & Budu, 2007; Shabani, 2007; Thiaw, 2007; Mahgoub & Alawad, 2014).
In addition to what has been reported on developing countries, there have also been a number of reports on problems experienced specifically in Africa. The next section briefly explores what has been published, in order to contextualise the discussion of problems experienced with regard to e-resources.

Challenges at tertiary institutions in Africa

Like other universities around the world, African universities are key institutions for the production, preservation and dissemination of knowledge for the advancement and betterment of humanity (Gravenir, 2004; Materu, 2007; Spaull, 2013).
Although African countries are diverse and at different levels economically, there are similarities across countries in respect of some problems that have been studied and reported in higher education institutions in recent years (Mahgoub & Alawad, 2014). For instance, common problems have been reported in the Anglophone region in Malawi, Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Zambia and Zimbabwe in studies by Teferra and Altbach (2004), Juma (2005), Thiaw (2007), Kapur and Crowley (2008), Mahgoub and Alawad (2014) and Dulle (2015). Universities were established either immediately before or within a decade after political independence in most African countries (Thiaw, 2007; Shabani, 2008; Shabani, Okebukola & Oyewole, 2014). With the relative decline of state support during the severe economic crisis of the 1980s, these countries’ universities suffered substantial deterioration: overcrowding, infrastructure deficiency and inadequate access to international knowledge resources (Sawyerr, 2004b; Materu, 2007; Shabani, 2008).
Important issues have been reported with regards to funding, overcrowding problems and quality assurance.

Funding problems

Inadequate funding poses many problems at most universities, especially at many state-funded institutions. This is a result of declining state financial support. Lack of adequate funding at higher education level reported in Malawi, Zambia and Zimbabwe (Materu, 2007; Chikwanha, 2014; Mugwisi, 2015) is a major issue with which Central and Southern African countries’ higher education institutions continue to grapple. This problem is exacerbated by the increased demand for higher education – a common problem in Southern African countries (CODESRIA, 2006; Shabani, 2008; SARUA, 2013; Chikwanha, 2014; Mahgoub & Alawad, 2014).
Furthermore, sources of funding for African universities are too often externally generated (Juma, 2005; Materu, 2007; Fisher & Scott, 2011). The funders consequently define priorities and fix the goals and the means to achieve them.

1. External funding is used to supplement and cover projects and at times overheads such as faculty and staff salaries. Many universities in Zimbabwe, Zambia and Malawi focus on income-generating projects in order to increase income (Materu, 2007; Shabani, 2008; SARUA, 2013; Chikwanha, 2014; Shabani & Okebukola, 2014).
2. External funders influence research agendas and focus at many universities and these agendas may not be in line with the needs of the university and local community (Juma, 2005).
3. Another sad fact about universities in Africa is that scholars in Africa are generally more tuned to research, technical and theoretical innovations, and publications originating from Europe and North America than from their immediate African neighbours (Thiaw, 2007; Shabani, 2008; Ndungu, 2016).

Declaration 
Acknowledgements 
Abstract 
Table of contents 
References 
Appendices 
List of Figures 
List of Tables 
List of Abreviations and Acronyms 
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND TO STUDY
1.1 INTRODUCTION
1.2 DIGITAL SCHOLARLY RESOURCES
1.2.1 Why are e-resources important?
1.2.2 Access to e-journals
1.2.3 Open Access
1.2.4 Increasing journal subscription fees
1.2.5 Accessing e-journals in developing countries..
1.2.6 Research4Life, Highwire Press, EIFL, DOAJ, TEEAL and PERI programmes
1.2.7 Low use or non-use of e-journals in Africa
1.2.8 Factors influencing use of e-resources in Africa
1.2.9 Use of e-resources at universities in Zimbabwe
1.3 RESEARCH PROBLEM
1.4 PURPOSE OF THE STUDY
1.5 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY
1.6 RESEARCH QUESTION AND SUB-QUESTIONS
1.7 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
1.7.1 Research design
1.7.2 Study sites and target population
1.7.3 Sample and sampling procedures.
1.7.4 Data and data-collection techniques
1.8 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY.
1.9 DEMARCATION OF THE STUDY
1.10 CLARIFICATION OF KEY TERMS AND CONCEPTS
1.10.1 Developing countries
1.10.2 Countries in transition
1.10.3 Developed countries
1.10.4 Digital library
1.10.5 Electronic journals
1.10.6 Bibliographic databases
1.10.7 Open access
1.10.8 Open educational resources
1.11 DIVISION OF CHAPTERS
1.12 SUMMARY
CHAPTER TWO: ACCESS TO ELECTRONIC INFORMATION RESOURCES AT TERTIARY EDUCATION INSTITUTIONS 
2.1 INTRODUCTION
2.2 TERTIARY EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES
2.3 ACADEMIC LIBRARIES AT TERTIARY EDUCATION INSTITUTIONS IN AFRICA
2.4 STUDIES ON ACCESS TO INFORMATION AT TERTIARY EDUCATION INSTITUTIONS
2.5 PROBLEMS OF ACCESSING INFORMATION RESOURCES IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES
2.6 ATTEMPTS TO IMPROVE ACCESS TO INFORMATION IN AFRICA
2.7 SUMMARY
CHAPTER THREE: CHALLENGES INFLUENCING THE USE OF E-RESOURCES 
3.1 INTRODUCTION
3.2 IMPACT OF DISCIPLINES ON USE OF E-RESOURCES
3.3 DIFFERENT USER GROUPS AND USE OF E-RESOURCES
3.4 TECHNOLOGY ADOPTION FACTORS AND USE
3.5 MEASURING USE OF E-RESOURCES
3.6 SUMMARY
CHAPTER FOUR: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY.
4.1 INTRODUCTION
4.2 RESEARCH APPROACHES AND METHODS OF RESEARCH
4.3 TECHNIQUES OF RESEARCH
4.4 POPULATION SAMPLE AND SAMPLING PROCEDURES
4.5 APPLICATION OF TECHNIQUES TO RESEARCH PROBLEM AND SITUATION
4.6 SUMMARY
CHAPTER FIVE: DATA ANALYSIS 
5.1 INTRODUCTION
5. 2 SUMMARY OF METHOD OF CONDUCTING THE STUDY
5.3 FINDINGS FROM LIBRARY DIRECTORS
5.4 FINDINGS FROM INFORMATION SPECIALISTS CHARGED WITH E-RESOURCES
5.5 FINDINGS FROM ACADEMIC STAFF TEACHING IN SCIENTIFIC TECHNOLOGICAL AND MEDICAL DISCIPLINES
5.6 FINDINGS FROM POSTGRADUATE STUDENTS IN STM DISCIPLINES
5.7 FINDINGS OF THE QUALITATIVE STUDY
5.8 SUMMARY
CHAPTER SIX: GENERAL LINEAR MODEL TESTS 
6.1 INTRODUCTION .
6.2 GENERAL LINEAR MODEL PROCEDURE
6.3 RESULTS OF THE MULTIPLE STAGE TESTS
6.4 SUMMARY OF FINDINGS OF THE GLM PROCEDURE
6.5 TRIANGULATION
6.6 SUMMARY
CHAPTER SEVEN: FINDINGS, RECOMMENDATIONS AND CONCLUSIONS
7.1 INTRODUCTION
7.2 RESTATING THE PROBLEM AND RESEARCH QUESTION
7.3 SUMMARY OF EMPERICAL STUDY
7.4 FINDINGS ON SUB-PROBLEMS
7.5 LIMITATIONS OF STUDY
7.6 VALUE OF STUDY
7.7 RECOMMENDATIONS FOR PRACTICE
7.8 RECOMMENDATIONS FOR THEORY
7.9 RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH
7.10 CONCLUSION
REFERENCES 
Appendix
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