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History of irrigation
Irrigation could be explained as artificially supplying water to an agricultural/cropped land to avert crop failure due to shortage of natural precipitation (as supplementary) in semi-arid regions or to permit farming in arid regions as substitute for rainfall (Hillel, 1990; Bazza, 2007). Irrigated agriculture was defined by FAO (1999) as the practice of increasing the supply of water by using water-controlling technologies, including a drainage system to dispose of excess water.
Despite the variation in water conveyance (ranging from carrying water with buckets to a complex canal system), history has recorded that irrigated agriculture started thousands of years back (Brady & Weil, 1999). It is believed that irrigated agriculture started in the Near East, particularly in the Egypt (along the banks of the Nile River) and Mesopotamia (between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers) areas, which suffered form severe aridity (Bazza, 2007). Hoffman, Howell and Solomon (1990) mentioned that irrigated agriculture was observed in Egypt and Mesopotamia some time around 6000 BC and 4000 BC, respectively. Irrigated farming was introduced to the rest of the North African and Mediterranean regions some time around 800 BC (Bazza, 2007). Drawing groundwater for crop production was first developed by the Persians 2 500 years ago, first in Middle East, and later, with expansion of their rule (550 BC- 331 BC), it was introduced to some regions of Asia and Africa (Bazza, 2007).
Contribution of irrigated agriculture
Irrigation has played an indispensable role in coping with agricultural productivity and the everincreasing demands from the continuously growing world population. The proportion of irrigated land is as small as 17% of the total cropped area, but its contribution is as high as 40% of humankind’s food demands (Hamdy et al., 2003; Smith, 2004). A report from the Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO) of the United Nations (UN) indicated that under irrigated conditions, the yield of most crops could increase by 100 to 400% (FAO, 1996). In irrigated agriculture, farmers are able to predict the timing of irrigation and supply the required amount of irrigation water for each crop. In regions where there is no shortage of freshwater, a year-round cropping would be possible through irrigation (Hussain & Hanjra, 2004), if other climatic conditions are favourable. In addition, in irrigated agriculture, farmers have a better chance to be flexible in planning what crop to plant in response to season and market demands than in dryland agriculture (FAO, 1999).
As the farm productivity increases, the income of the landowners rises, wages of farm employees improve, and employment opportunity increases (Smith, 2004). Such an increase in agricultural productivity would lower food prices in the rural communities, who spend about 50 to 80% of their income on purchasing staples (FAO, 1999; Hasnip, Mandal, Morrison, Pradhan & Smith, 2001). Irrigated agriculture could be explained as a pillar of economic growth because an increase in agricultural output and population concentration attract other services and infrastructures (Bazza, 2007). Hussain & Hanjra (2004) highlighted that an increase of 1% in agricultural productivity could result in an equivalent reduction in the number of people who live below the poverty line. Poverty is estimated to be 20 to 30% lower in communities where irrigated farming is practised, compared to those communities fully dependent on rainfed agriculture (Hussain & Hanjra, 2004).
CHAPTER 1
GENERAL INTRODUCTION
CHPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 ESSENTIAL OILS
2.2 ROSE-SCENTED GERANIUM (PELARGONIUM SPECIES)
2.3 IRRIGATION
CHAPTER 3
GROWTH, ESSENTIAL OIL YIELD AND OIL COMPOSITION OF ROSE-SCENTED GERANIUM GROWN AT DIFFERENT MAXIMUM ALLOWABLE SOIL WATER DEPLETION LEVELS
3.1 ABSTRACT
3.2 INTRODUCTION
3.3 MATERIALS AND METHODS
3.4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
3.5 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
CHAPTER 4
RESPONSE OF ROSE-SCENTED GERANIM GROWTH, ESSENTIAL OIL YIELD AND OIL COMPOSITION TO A ONE-MONTHIRRIGATIONWITHOLDING PERIOD
4.1 ABSTRACT
4.2 INTRODUCTION
4.3 MATERIALS AND METHODS
4.4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
4.5 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
CHAPTER 5
RESPONSE OF ROSE-SCENTED GERANIUM GROWTH, ESSENTIAL OIL YIELD AND OIL COMPOSITION TO IRRIGATION FREQUENCY AND A TERMINAL ONE-WEEK WATER-WITHHOLDING PERIOD
5.1 ABSTRACT
5.2 INTRODUCTION
5.3 MATERIALS AND METHODS
5.4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
5.5 CONCLUSIONS
CHAPTER 6
RESPONSE OF ROSE-SCENTED GERANUIM LEAF PHYSIOLOGYAND MORPHOLOGY TO IRRIGATION FREQUENCY
6.1 ABSTRACT
6.2 INTRODUCTION
6.3 MATERIALS AND METHODS
6.4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
6.5 CONCLUSIONS
CHAPTER 7
GENERAL DISCUSSION
REFERENCES
