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CHAPTER 3 THEOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CONFUCIANISM AND CHRISTIANITY
INTRODUCTION
Confucianism is known for its non-religious nature because it emphasizes virtue and a rationalistic aspect. However, Confucianism presents “the religious aspect as a more certain hypothesis” (Keum 2000:3). The Confucian School of Nature and Principle makes its relationships, including man and the entire universe, “with the Ultimate as the basic necessary principle in an extensive and intricate philosophical system” (Keum 2000:3).
The Ultimate is the foundation or basis of the world of phenomena and the producer of all things. It also orders and controls all existence. Confucianism’s Ultimate is related to the universe through the creation and management of it. Although it transcends the world, it is at the same time immanent in it, embracing it. The path to unity with the Ultimate is that of respect and sincerity. Respect provides for the purity of man’s heart. The concentrated awareness is an attitude of faith towards the Ultimate. Sincerity in achieving union with the Ultimate provides a mystical, mysterious, or spiritual experience. Through respect man meets the transcendent Ultimate (Keum 2000:10).
Above all, Koreans absolutely believe that Confucianism is a religion at the present day. If a Korean believes Confucianism, he/she rejects other religions. The Koreans do not believe two religions at the same time. This means that Confucianism is not just a philosophy or a non-religious nature. Confucianism has its own specific worship form, temple, canon, afterlife and gods like those of Christianity. Thus, a comparison of the theological foundations of Confucianism and Christianity is intended to clarify the reader’s understanding of ancestor worship and filial piety. This chapter presents Christian doctrines more than those of Confucianism so as to relate how Christianity’s teachings are distinguished from those of Confucianism.
CONFUCIAN RITE AND CHRISTIAN WORSHIP
CONFUCIAN RITE
Confucian worship consists of the worship of heaven and earth, and the ceremony to Confucius and one’s ancestors. Among the various types of worship in Confucianism is ancestor worship, which is the worship of dead persons, and is considered by them as filial piety. Ancestor worship is based on the belief of the existence of the souls of dead persons, and is conducted by the kinship group. Ancestor worship is based on the continuance of the personality in some form after the death of the physical body, and is seen as a way to have a spiritual relationship between dead and living family members. Confucianism has three major forms of ancestor worship: “(1) the funeral rites, (2) the mourning observances, and (3) the continuing sacrifices to the manes” (Thompson 1975:47).
The reason for the importance of ancestor worship in Confucianism is that its followers believe that “the ancestors dwelt in three specific places: within the home, within the family or lineage cemetery, and within the lineage temple” (Thompson 1975:53). For the purpose of filial piety, dead ancestors are the object of worship in Confucianism. Confucianism believes that honoring the ancestors and practicing ancestor worship are the best way to avoid disaster and receive fertility. When Confucians worship dead ancestors, the belief is that the spirits of the dead ancestors descend to the place where the family group worships them. One Chinese proverb says, “Western man worships God as almighty because God made him; the Chinese demand service from their gods because man made them” (Thompson 1975:57).
Roo (2000:70-74) describes that Confucianism has nine sacrificial rites in which a family performs ancestor worship for their dead ancestors, translated as chesa in Korean. These nine ancestral rites are still practiced in South Korea: 虞祭—rite that is practiced on the funeral day, and on the second and third day afterwards; 小祥—rite that is practiced on the first anniversary of a person’s death; 大祥—rite that is practiced on the second anniversary of a person’s death; 禫祭—rite that is practiced on the second month after the second anniversary of a person’s death; 吉祭—rite that is practiced on the twenty-seventh month after a person’s death; 時祭—ancestor memorial services performed in each season of the year; 茶禮—rites that are practiced 4 times a year during the day on significant holidays like the lunar New Year (Sul) or the Autumn Harvest Festival on lunar August 15th (Chusuk); 忌祭—a memorial service held at home at midnight on the night before the death day of an ancestor (Ki-il). These rites are intended to commemorate four generations of ancestors. Lastly is 墓祭—a memorial service held before the grave.
CHRISTIAN WORSHIP
Worship is intended to be the most honorable and glorious action toward God. The primary purpose of the church is to worship God. The Bible says clearly that the object of worship is God himself, and the purpose of worship is to glorify God, adore Him, and recognize what God has done for believers. Worship consists of words and actions for the service of almighty God. Words include prayer, praise, and the reading and preaching of God’s Word. Actions include sacraments, humility, obedience, and submission. The English word “worship” is derived from the word “weorthscipe.” “Weorthscipe” is a compound Anglo-Saxon word, “worth” and “ship,” meaning one worthy of reverence and honor (Segler and Bradley 2006:3).
The Old Testament
Worship is to attribute worth to the Lord. This strong sentiment is described in Psalm 96:7-8: “Ascribe to the Lord, O families of nations, ascribe to the Lord glory and strength. Ascribe to the Lord the glory due his name; ring an offering and come into his courts.” In Isaiah 48:11, God declares: “For my own sake, for my own sake, I do this. How can I let myself be defamed? I will not yield my glory to another.” This passage says that God alone is worthy of worship. Translated into English, the Hebrew word “shachah” means “to bow down,” or “to bend down or prostrate oneself” (Gen 22:5; 1 Sam 1:3; 1 Chron 29:20; Ps 66:4, 99:9, 138:2; Isa 66:23) (Leonard 1993:3).7
The Old Testament term for worship conveys “the reverential attitude of mind or body, combined with the notions of religious adoration, obedience, and service” (Segler and Bradley 2006:5). When the Hebrew people heard that the Lord was concerned about them and had seen their misery, they bowed down and worshiped (Exod 4:31). Thus, this Hebrew word designates worship as expressing submission to the covenant of God.
Worship as described in the Old Testament was different from pagan worship in the ancient world. Old Testament worship was prescribed in God’s revelation to his chosen people. The worship of Israel in the Old Testament is distinguished from other Oriental cults in three ways. First, Israel’s God was the only God. Second, the God of Israel was a personal God who was the God of the covenant, intervening in history. Third, Israel in its worship had no images, as opposed to the practices of Oriental cults. Exodus 20:4 and Deuteronomy 5:8 prohibit the worship of images, a prohibition given to Moses on Mount Sinai. Both versions declare clearly that man must not worship cultic images. The prohibition of images protected the religion of Israel from compromising with cultic worship (Vaux 1961:271-73).
God desires for man to communicate with him. When God created man, God made conversation with Adam in the Garden of Eden. The first described act of worship appears in Genesis 4:2-5. The sons of Adam, Cain and Abel, worshiped God. Cain brought some of the fruits of the soil as an offering to the Lord, and Abel brought fat portions from some of the firstborn of his flock. The Lord looked with favor on Abel and his offering, but he disfavored Cain and his offering. The Lord saw the motivations in their hearts. Several generations later Noah worshiped God. After the flood, Noah came out of the ark, and he built an altar to the Lord. Taking some of the clean animals and clean birds, he sacrificed burnt offerings on this altar. The Lord smelled the pleasing aroma.
In the patriarchal period, worship was performed at private and family altars. God appeared to Abraham and called him to leave his country and go to the land God would show him. God promised to bless Abraham, to make him into a great nation, and to make his name great. God promised him that he would give this land to Abraham’s offspring. Abraham built an altar at that location to the Lord who had appeared to him, and then he called on the name of the Lord (Gen 12:1-8).
Abraham worshiped God when he showed his willingness to sacrifice his own son, Isaac, to the Lord (Gen 22:9-10). Later, Isaac built an altar where the Lord appeared to him and promised, “I am the God of your father Abraham. Do not be afraid, for I am with you; I will bless you and will increase the number of your descendants for the sake of my servant Abraham,” and like his father, Isaac called on the name of the Lord (Gen 26:24-25). Jacob set up a stone for an altar, which he dedicated to the Lord and called it Bethel (Gen 28:16-17). Even before God gave the ritual law of Leviticus, the Old Testament emphasized the necessity of worship.
For the Mosaic period, Israel’s worship was observed in the wilderness under the direction of Moses. God instructed Moses to make the tabernacle. The tabernacle was to be a specific place to worship God. James Strong (1952:9) summarizes the important function of the tabernacle as follows:
It appears (Exodus 33:7) that the name “Tabernacle of the Congregation” was originally applied to an ordinary tent, probably the one officially occupied by Moses himself; and that this was first set apart by the token of the divine presence at its doorway as the regular place of public communication between Jehovah and the people. This was prior to the construction of what was afterwards technically known as the Tabernacle, which of course superseded such a temporary arrangement.
ABSTRACT
KEY TERMS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
CHAPTER 1: RESEARCH ORIENTATION
1.1 INTRODUCTION
1.2 CONFUCIUS AND CONFUCIANISM
1.3 EXAMPLES OF PRACTICE
1.3.1 MY MINISTRY
1.3.2 AN EXPERT’S SURVEY IN A KOREAN CONTEXT
1.3.3 KOREAN RELIGIOUS COUNCIL’S REPORT IN A KOREAN CONTEXT
1.3.4 KOREAN NEWSPAPER’S REPORT IN A KOREAN CONTEXT
1.3.5 SUMMARY
1.4 RESEARCH GOALS
1.5 RESEARCH PROBLEM AND RESEARCH GAP
1.6 RESEARCH POSITIONING AND METHODOLOGY
1.6.1 RESEARCH POSITIONING WITHIN EPISTEMOLOGY
1.6.1.1 Fundamental Practical Theology
1.6.1.1.1 Descriptive Theology
1.6.1.1.2 Historical Theology
1.6.1.1.3 Systematic Theology
1.6.1.1.4 Strategic Practical Theology
1.6.1.2 Postfoundationalist Theology
1.6.2 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY WITH THE EPISTEMOLOGY
1.6.2.1 Seven Movements
1.6.2.2 Specific Methods of the Research
1.6.2.2.1 Literary Research
1.6.2.2.2 Theological Reflection
CHAPTER 2: CONFUCIAN ANCESTOR WORSHIP IN ASIAN COUNTRIES
2.1 INTRODUCTION
2.2 ANCESTOR WORSHIP IN CHINA
2.2.1 CHRISTIANITY ON ANCESTOR WORSHIP
2.2.2 ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH
2.2.3 PROTESTANT CHURCH
2.3 ANCESTOR WORSHIP IN TAIWAN
2.3.1 ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH
2.3.2 PROTESTANT CHURCH
2.4 ANCESTOR WORSHIP IN JAPAN
2.4.1 CONFUCIANISM
2.4.2 BUDDHISM
2.4.3 PROTESTANT CHURCH
2.5 ANCESTOR WORSHIP IN KOREA
2.5.1 SHAMANISM AND ANCESTOR WORSHIP
2.5.2 CHOSUN DYNASTY IN KOREAN HISTORY
2.5.3 KOREAN CHRISTIANITY HISTORY
2.5.3.1 Korean Roman Catholicism
2.5.3.1.1 Japanese Shrine Worship
2.5.3.2 Protestant Church
2.5.3.2.1 Japanese Shrine Worship
2.5.3.2.2 Controversy among Korean Protestant Churches
CHAPTER 3: THEOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CONFUCIANISM AND CHRISTIANITY
3.1 INTRODUCTION
3.2 CONFUCIAN RITE AND CHRISTIAN WORSHIP
3.3 CONFUCIAN SHRINE AND CHRISTIAN CHURCH
3.4 CONFUCIAN CANON AND THE BIBLE IN CHRISTIANITY
3.5 CONFUCIAN VIEW AND CHRISTIAN ESCHATOLOGY ON THE AFTERLIFE
3.6 CONFUCIAN GODS AND THE CHRISTIAN GOD
CHAPTER 4: CONFUCIAN AND BIBLICAL TEACHINGS ON FILIAL PIETY
4.1 INTRODUCTION
4.2 CONFUCIAN TEACHING ON FILIAL PIETY
4.3 BIBLICAL TEACHING ON FILIAL PIETY
4.4 SUMMARY
CHAPTER 5: CONFUCIAN AND BIBLICAL TEACHINGS ON ANCESTOR WORSHIP
5.1 INTRODUCTION
5.2 CONFUCIAN TEACHING ON ANCESTOR WORSHIP
5.3 BIBLICAL TEACHING ON ANCESTOR WORSHIP
5.4 SUMMARY
CHAPTER 6: PRACTICAL THEOLOGICAL APPLICATIONS OF FILIAL PIETY AND ANCESTOR WORSHIP
6.1 INTRODUCTION
6.2 TWO DIMENSIONS OF ANCESTOR WORSHIP AS FILIAL PIETY IN CONFUCIANISM
6.3 APPLICATIONS AND SUGGESTIONS FOR CREATING HARMONY AMONG FAMILY MEMBERS WITH REGARD TO FILIAL PIETY AND ANCESTOR WORSHIP
6.4 RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FURTHER STUDY
6.5 SUMMARY
BIBLIOGRAPHY
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