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The nature and origin of conflict
In terms of Section 1 of the Constitution of South Africa, the primary aim of the Constitution is to establish a representative democracy, supplemented by direct and participatory governance – that is, a democracy in which the people participate not only in governance decisions that affect them but also when they are asked to make decisions on other matters (Joubert & Prinsloo, 2009). Section 23(1) of the South African Schools Act makes provision for the creation of the requisite democratic structures and participatory processes by means of which stakeholder representatives (parents, educators, non-educators, learners in secondary schools, and even the State, as represented by the principal) could be become members of school governing bodies (DoE, 1996). In theory the intention is that governance powers and responsibilities will be distributed more equally between all stakeholders: policies should be developed through a process of rigorous deliberation, with all stakeholders, regardless of age, gender, or race, having equal decision-making power. This, according to Mncube (2009b) is the way in which democracy will manifest itself.
In practice, though, one cannot ignore the reality that the processes and outcomes of any kind of human interaction are affected by the personal likes and dislikes of those involved (Ghaffar, 2009). Members of school governing bodies, like other human beings, have diverse ideas, goals, values, beliefs and opinions about the need for and nature of school governance (Van Der Merwe, Prinsloo & Steinmann, 2003). The complexity of schools as organisations peopled by individuals often drawn from a range of cultures but working towards a common goal – effective teaching and learning (Van der Mescht & Tyala, 2008) – lends credence to claims like these. As pointed out earlier, the different ways in which parents, educators and learners on the SGB interpret and enact their functions, participation, representation and decision-making powers in school governance matters highlight the existence of underlying historical, structural and ideological conflicts. In other words, given the role that ideological, power and value relations play in shaping forms of participation, representation and decision making, one could argue that conflicts and dilemmas are an integral part of school management (Naidoo, 2005).
Conflict occurs when individuals or groups feel they are not getting what they need or want and therefore decide to pursue either their individual/self-interest or the interests of the group with which they are associated. In this regard Duma (2010) cites a case where the parent component of a rural school governing body did not agree with the principle that pregnant girls should be allowed to attend school until the time they give birth, despite the fact that Section 9(3) of the Bill of Rights prohibits direct or indirect unfair discrimination against anyone on one or more grounds, including race, gender, sex, pregnancy, etc. In another case, the SGB decided that all learners had to attend religious morning assemblies at school. In terms of Section 31(1) of the Bill of Rights, people belonging to a religious community may not be denied their right to establish, join and maintain their cultural or religious associations and bodies. However, in terms of Section 15(2) (c) of the Schools Act, the attendance of religious observances at a school is free and voluntary. In both these cases differences in the way the parent component of these SGBs interpreted the laws negatively affected their relationship with other members of the SGB, particularly with school principals, who had a
different understanding of the law (Heystek, 2006).
Religion in Education
Narrowly defined, religion can be referred to as a set of beliefs and practices in relation to the transcendent, the sacred, the spiritual, or the ultimate dimensions of human life. In broad terms, religion is a term that embraces many religious traditions, communities, and institutions in society. In all cases religion is viewed as an important aspect of life, hence it is something that children should learn about — both in terms of general and in terms of specific understandings of the term (DoE, 2003). Paragraph 31 of the National Policy on Religion and Education [NPRE] (2003) describes religions as key sources for clarifying morals and ethics, and of building regard for others since all religions are founded on the values of justice, mercy, love and care, commitment, compassion, and co-operation. Hence they chart profound ways of being human and of relating to others and the world.
Scholars and educationists give various definitions to the term “education”, depending on their individual understanding of the concept and of educational matters under investigation at any particular moment. In this study education is regarded as a process by means of which both the young and the old could be provided with appropriate learning opportunities in terms of their aptitude, capabilities, abilities, interests and other attributes. Education, in this study, is therefore conceptualized as a human event that promotes the development of a human being in his / her spiritual, moral, ethical, and social dimensions (Henze, 2003 in Chizelu, 2006), for individual benefit as well as for the benefit of others. In this sense education is therefore seen as an opportunity for people to creatively and innovatively apply knowledge from their past experiences, not necessarily to repeat what past generations have done but rather to produce new knowledge. Viewed in this light, the concept of religion in education honours and recognises the rich religious diversity of South Africa, thereby reflecting the Constitutional values of citizenship, human rights, equality, freedom from discrimination, and freedom of conscience, religion, thought, belief and opinion (DoE, 2003).
Narrative analysis
Drawing on the characteristics of phenomenological research design, the previous sub-section outlined the process in which researcher and participants engaged as a way of laying down their experiences, the narratives of which were audio-taped. During the interviews, some participants were elaborate and quite articulate while others halted, reflected, paused and were much more concise in their telling. Consequently some interviews were lengthy while others were not. This presented me with a challenge when I started re-constructing the text for the reader. One of the merits of the phenomenological approach is that its use generates descriptions that are rich and evocative, invoking in readers the phenomenological nod in recognition of a phenomenon so richly described that they too may have experienced it (Ajjawi & Higgs, 2007). With this as my point of departure I set down the concrete descriptions of principals’ lived experiences, often first-person accounts, in their everyday words, avoiding abstract intellectual generalisation (Finlay, 2009). I did transcriptions myself in order for me to get a grip on the material (Bauer, 1996). Body language, facial expressions, and gestures were attended to in the form of field notes. An old adage says, “I know what I’ve said, but I’m not sure if what I meant is what you have heard and understood”. For this reason, I sent transcriptions to participants for correction of errors of fact and to ensure that I have represented them and their ideas accurately (Mertler, 2006).
Upon receiving the returned transcriptions from principals, I followed the precise data analysis procedures developed from phenomenological principles and guidelines on systematic and useful ways of interpreting data. The aim of phenomenological data analysis is to transform a lived experience into a textual expression of its essence, in such a way that the effect of the text is at once a reflexive re-living and a reflective appropriation of something meaningful (Ajjawi & Higgs, 2007; Connelly & Clandinin, 2006). Hunter (2010) asserts that once words are out as written text, they become a story. People become texts; texts become the voice that provides a human link that bonds together participants’ words and the writings of the researcher to provide the reader with an effective experience (SharmaBrymer & Fox, 2008). Van Manen (1990), as cited in Sharma-Brymer and Fox (2008), acknowledges that texts may be what was not said or written while still being “generally acknowledged truths”. It is normal practice for human beings to use their own experience to interpret and understand the world around them. However, allowing too much of a natural attitude is likely to manipulate and distort the results of the study. For this reason I put aside my preconceived approach to everyday living as informed by culture and education as well as my past
experience of religious education – i.e. I adopted the “phenomenological attitude” (Holroyd, 2001; Wertz, 2005). In doing so, I was able to gain a deeper understanding of principals’ experiences of different religion policies and of how they dealt with the implementation of these. The six steps for analysing narratives proposed by Schütze (1977, 1983), in Jovchelovitch and Bauer (2000), formed the basis for my narrative analysis in this study.
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION, RESEARCH PROBLEM AND METHOD
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Statement of the problem
1.3 Sub-contracting versus mediation
1.4 Relevance and actuality of the study
1.5 Research design
1.6 Research method
1.7 Limitations
1.8 Conclusion
CHAPTER 2 MEDIATION AS AN EDUCATION MANAGEMENT FUNCTION
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Educational change in South Africa
2.3 Managing policy conflict
2.4 Mediation as an education leadership role
2.5 Leadership mediation as a moral imperative
2.6 Conclusion
CHAPTER 3 THE CHANGING POLICY LANDSCAPE IN SOUTH AFRICA: CHALLENGES IN MANAGING EDUCATION TRANSFORMATION
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Definition of key concepts
3.3 The rationale for religion in education
3.4 The development of religion in education policy in South Africa
3.5 Current trends in religion policy discourse
3.6 Conclusion
CHAPTER 4 RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHOD
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Research design
4.3 Research method
4.4 Trustworthiness
4.5 Ethical considerations
4.6 Conclusion
CHAPTER 5 RESEARCH FINDINGS
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Non-Christian principals’ narratives
5.3 Christian principals’ narratives
5.4 Common trends in all the principals’ religious experiences
5.5 Impact of principals’ experiences on policy implementation
5.6 Conclusion
5.7 Conclusion
CHAPTER 6 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
6.1 Introduction
6.2 The religion in education context
6.3 Strategies for dealing with change management and conflict
6.4 Past religion policy experiences
6.5 Religion in education—post 1994
6.6 Religion in education—post 2003
6.7 Principals’ experiences of religion policy implementation
6.8 Findings
6.9 Recommendations for further research possibilities
6.10 Final note
