STRESS IN THE WORKPLACE

Get Complete Project Material File(s) Now! »

Family

An individual’s family situation, which can include crises such as a squabble or illness of a family member or a strained relationship with the spouse or one or more of the children, has the capacity to generate stress for employees (Luthans, 2002: 398). Employees may find it increasingly difficult to balance work and family due to longer working hours and late-night shifts (Atkinson, 1999: 57) thus putting more strain on work-family relationships (Carlson & Perrewé, 1999: 521; Sutherland & Cooper, 2000: 105). In firms with strong work performance norms conflict due to family-work demands led to job stress (Hammer et al, 2004: 89).
The co-ordination of work and vacation schedules, and the search for child and elder care has become prominent and highly stressful (DeFrank & Ivancevich, 1998: 57). Dual-career couples may experience stress due to conflict with society’s expectations concerning family roles resulting in feelings of guilt (Cartwright & Cooper, 1997: 148). Social support plays an important role in moderating the effects of time demands and role stressors in both the family and work domain reducing the level of work-family conflict (Carlson & Perrewé, 1999: 528). Other factors that contribute to the employee’s experience of stress due to the family situation include life changes such as a divorce, the general economic situation in the country, facilities at home, social situations, and status, amongst others.

Relocation

Relocation of the family due to a transfer or a promotion can lead to stress (Cartwright & Cooper, 1997: 153; Luthans, 2002: 398). The labour force is becoming more mobile, which is particularly the case for managers and other professionals (Cartwright & Cooper, 1997: 15). It is estimated that managers in the U.K. change jobs about once every three years. Moving can be traumatic and stressful because the individual has to give up his or her job, family, and outside activities. Further the age, qualifications, job skills, and the personality of the individual influences the way the move is viewed and interpreted. According to the U.S. Department of Labor, the ‘typical American family’ consisting of a working husband, a homemaker wife, and an average of two children, represents 28 only 7% of the families in the U.S.A. In Britain, nearly 65% of all women work, mostly full-time (Cartwright & Cooper, 1997: 21). Not only do dual-career families affect women but also men, as part of their career, are expected to be mobile and move to different localities, whether within their country or abroad. If the man was the sole breadwinner, this may have occurred more easily. Now, such a decision will create problems for both working members of the family (Cartwright & Cooper, 1997: 22). Expatriate managers may experience a culture shock when assigned to a foreign country for a specific length of time and when they return to their home country after their contract has expired they may experience isolation, both significant sources of stress (Sanchez, Spector, & Cooper, 2000: 103).

Organizational stressors

Not only does the individual have to contend with potential stressors outside the workplace, but also with those that are generated within an organization. These stressors are unique to the organization and occur at the macrolevel dimension of the organization (Luthans, 2002: 399). The macrolevel comprises four categories of potential stressors, which include administrative policies and strategies, organizational structure and design, organizational processes, and working conditions (Figure 3.5). Cartwright and Cooper (1997: 14-21), Luthans (2002: 399), Moorhead and Griffin (1989: 197-201; Quick et al, 1997: 21; Sutherland & Cooper, 2000: 101) focus on a number of factors within the organization that may cause stress. These include task demands, physical demands, role demands, interpersonal demands, and career stress.

Role conflict and ambiguity

Role conflict and ambiguity develops when an individual is uncertain about his or her job definition, work objectives, co-workers’ expectations, and responsibilities of his or her job (Cartwright & Cooper, 1997: 17; Luthans, 2002: 408). Role conflict and ambiguity may result in lowered selfesteem, depressed mood, life dissatisfaction, low motivation to work, and job turnover. Role conflict can be experienced as incongruence between two or more roles (Moorhead & Griffin, 1989: 200) or when an individual experiences conflicting job demands (Cartwright and Cooper, 1997: 17). Role ambiguity can be defined as a lack of clarity regarding the exact nature of a particular role (Moorhead & Griffin, 1989: 250). This can result from having a poor job description, obtaining unclear instructions from the supervisor, or unclear cues from fellow workers.
The literature on organizational development describes three different types of role conflict often experienced by both mangers and their fellow workers (Luthans, 2002: 408): 33 Interrole conflict, which can happen when a person experiences conflict among two or more roles that must be played at the same time. Work roles and non-work roles are often found to be the cause. Intrarole conflict may be created by contradictory expectations as to how a given role should be played. Luthans (2002: 408) gives the example of a manager, who is unsure whether he or she should be autocratic or democratic when dealing with his or her subordinates. Person-role conflict may result from a basic incongruence between the person and the expectations of the role. Moorhead and Griffin (1989: 251) illustrate this by a peace activist working for a weapons factory, although it goes against this person’s beliefs. Chen and Spector (1992: 179) gathered self-report data from 400 white-collar employees found in a number of different occupations. Among the variables measured they found that work stressors such as role ambiguity and role conflict gave rise to interpersonal aggression and sabotage.

Group stressors

The group is a great potential source of stress, which includes the lack of group cohesiveness and social support. Lack of group cohesiveness refers to the sense of “togetherness” the employee’s experience, especially at the lower levels of the organization. When the employee does not experience a sense of cohesiveness, it can lead to high levels of stress (Luthans, 2002: 400). Cohesiveness is very important to employees, specifically at the lower levels of the organization. If the employee cannot be part of the group due to either the task design, the supervisor preventing it, or when other members of the group shut the individual out, a lack of cohesiveness can be experienced as highly stressful. Lack of social support can be very stressful, as the individual cannot share their ups and downs with others. Quick et al (1997: 197) conclude that there is a strong connection between social support and health. For example, socially isolated individuals are less healthy both physically and psychologically and they are more likely to die (House et al in Quick et al, 1997: 196). In a cohesive group this is not expected to happen.

Optimism

Optimism and pessimism reflect alternative styles of peoples’ expectations of the future (Carver & Scheier, 2002: 231). People use these styles to predict whether future outcomes will be good or bad. The expectancies people have generally pertain to their entire life. Optimistic people expect to have positive outcomes even when circumstances are difficult. Pessimistic people expect negative outcomes under the same circumstances. Quick et al (1997: 52) state that optimists moderate stress by realizing that bad events and hard times ‘are temporary, limited, and caused by something other than they them self’. Optimism is related to emotional wellbeing, quality of life and to lower levels of depression. Optimism was also related to problem-focused coping especially when the situation was viewed as controllable (Scheier, Weintraub, & Carver in Carver & Scheier, 2002: 235). Furthermore it was to the use of positive reframing and with the ability to accept the reality of the situation when the situation was viewed as uncontrollable.

Biological theories

Biological theories view the role of biological factors as important in the understanding of aggressive behaviour (Baron & Byrne, 1997: 394; Edwards, 1999: 133). Brain functions have been studied in animals, which show the limbic system is associated with fragments of aggressive acts (Edwards, 1999: 134). However it is difficult to study human brain function in the same manner and the only information is typically obtained from accidents, disease, and exploratory surgery. Neuroscientists have shown that the amygdala, found in the limbic system is associated with emotions such as anger, rage and the fight or flight response (LeDoux in Goleman, 1996: 16). Neurotransmitters, hormones, and chemical poisoning are believed to play a role in aggression (Baron & Byrne, 1997: 394; Edwards, 1999: 135).
Neurotransmitters that are thought to be associated with acts of aggression are serotonin, norepinephrine, and dopamine, when present in high concentrations in the limbic system. However no direct link between neurotransmitters and aggressive acts has been found. Higher levels of serotonin have been found in persons that attempted suicide and those who were institutionalised since childhood because of extremely high levels of aggression (Baron & Byrne, 1997: 395). Sexual hormones are thought to be associated with aggressive acts (Edwards, 1999: 136). Men are more likely to be aggressive and violent than women. This difference is thought to be due to the relative proportions of male and female sex hormones. In a meta-analysis of 45 independent studies Book et al (2001: 581) found a weak positive relationship between testosterone and aggression which was consistent with past meta-analysis (Archer in Book et al, 2001: 581). They also found that two variables moderated this relationship. The one variable referred to the age of the participant, where the effect size was largest in the 13- to 20-year old males and it 44 declined with age. The other variable was the time of day the testosterone was measured as this influenced the reliability of the testosterone levels. For males, the observed relationship between testosterone and aggression was highest in the afternoon with the measurement being the most reliable.

TABLE OF CONTENTS :

• Summary
• Opsomming
• CHAPTER WORK STRESS
  • 1.1 Introduction
  • 1.2 Occupational health psychology
  • 1.3 The nature of stress
    • 1.3.1 Definition of stress and work stress
    • 1.3.2 Burnout
  • 1.4 Major causes of stress
    • 1.4.1 Job insecurity
    • 1.4.2 Work hours
    • 1.4.3 Control at work
    • 1.4.4 Managerial style
  • 1.5 Consequences of stress
    • 1.5.1 Physical consequences
    • 1.5.2 Psychological problems
    • 1.5.3 Behavioural problems
  • 1.6 Stress in South Africa
  • 1.7 Conclusion
• CHAPTER RESEARCH PROBLEM AND PURPOSE OF STUDY
  • 2.1 Introduction
  • 2.2 Research problem
    • 2.2.1 Causes of stress
    • 2.2.2 Consequences of stress
  • 2.3 Aim of the study
  • 2.4 Research objectives
• CHAPTER STRESS IN THE WORKPLACE
  • 3.1 Introduction
  • 3.2 Models of stress
    • 3.2.1 Response-based model
    • 3.2.2 The general adaptation syndrome
    • 3.2.2.1 Physiological processes
    • 3.2.3 Stimulus-based model
    • 3.2.4 Psychological-based approaches
    • 3.2.4.1 Transactional models of stress
  • 1) Lazarus’s transactional model of stress
  • 2) Cox and MacKay’s transactional model of stress
  • 3.2.4.2 Cybernetic theory of organizational stress
  • 3.3 Main causes and sources of workplace stress
  • 3.3.1 Extraorganizational causes and sources of stress
    • 3.3.1.1 Rate of social and technological change
    • 3.3.1.2 Family
    • 3.3.1.3 Relocation
    • 3.3.1.4 Life changes
    • 3.3.1.5 Race, sex, and social class
  • 3.3.2 Organizational stressors
    • 3.3.2.1 Task demands
    • 3.3.2.2 Physical demands
    • 3.3.2.3 Role demands
  • 1) Role conflict and ambiguity
  • 2) Responsibility for others
  • 3.3.2.4 Interpersonal demands
  • 1) Group pressures
  • 2) Relationships at work
  • 3.3.2.5 Career stress
  • 3.3.3 Group stressors
  • 3.3.4 Individual stressors
    • 3.3.4.1 Type A and B personalities
    • 3.3.4.2 Learned helplessness
    • 3.3.4.3 Self-efficacy
    • 3.3.4.4 Psychological hardiness
    • 3.3.4.5 Optimism
  • 3.4 Conclusion
• CHAPTER AGGRESSION IN THE WORKPLACE
  • 4.1 Introduction
  • 4.2 Aggression
  • 4.2.1 Instinct theories
  • 4.2.2 Biological theories
  • 4.2.3 Drive theories
  • 4.2.4 Social learning theory
  • 4.2.5 Cognitive theories
  • 4.2.6 Personal causes of aggression
    • 4.2.6.1 Type A personality
    • 4.2.6.2 Hostile attribution bias
    • 4.2.6.3 Antecedents of aggressive behaviour
    • 4.2.6.4 “Big Five” dimensions of personality
    • 4.2.6.5 Gender differences
  • 4.2.7 Anger
  • 4.2.8 Violence
  • 4.3 Aggression in the workplace
  • 4.3.1 Causes of workplace aggression
  • 4.3.1.1 Social determinants of workplace aggression
  • 4.3.1.2 Situational factors
  • 4.3.1.3 Individual differences
  • 4.3.1.4 Models of workplace aggression
  • 4.4 Conclusion
• CHAPTER ANXIETY, DEPRESSION, AND WORRY
  • 5.1 Introduction
  • 5.2 Anxiety
  • 5.2.1 Normal anxiety
  • 5.2.2 Pathological anxiety
  • 5.2.3 Theories of anxiety
  • 5.2.3.1 Psychoanalytical theories
  • 5.2.3.2 Learning theories
  • 5.2.3.3 Existential theories
  • 5.2.3.4 Biological theories
  • 5.2.4 Stress and anxiety
  • 5.3 Depression
  • 5.3.1 Causal factors of depression
  • 5.3.1.1 Biological and genetic factors
  • 1) Genetic and constitutional factors
  • 2) Neurophysiological and neuroendocrinological factors
  • 3) Biochemical factors
  • 5.3.1.2 Psychosocial factors
  • 5.3.2 Theories of depression
    • 5.3.2.1 Psychodynamic theories
    • 5.3.2.2 Cognitive theory
    • 5.3.2.3 Learned helplessness
    • 5.3.2.4 Interpersonal effects of mood disorders
  • 5.4 Worry
  • 5.5 Work-related stress, anxiety, depression and worry
  • 5.6 Conclusion
• CHAPTER COPING
  • 6.1 Introduction
  • 6.2 Coping defined
  • 6.3 Coping strategies
  • 6.3.1 Key coping strategies
  • 6.3.1.1 Individual coping strategies
  • 1) Exercise
  • 2) Relaxation
  • 3) Time management
  • 4) Social support
  • 5) Cognitive therapy techniques
  • a) Stress inoculation
  • b) Problem solving
  • 6.3.1.2 Organizational strategies
  • 1) Institutional programmes
  • 2) Collateral programmmes
  • 6.4 Conclusion
• CHAPTER METHODOLOGY
  • 7.1 Introduction
  • 7.2 Research hypotheses
    • 7.2.1 First set
    • 7.2.2 Second set
    • 7.2.3 Third set
  • 7.2.4 Fourth set
  • 7.3 Research Design
  • 7.3.1 Data collection
    • 7.3.1.1 Psychometric instruments
    • 7.3.1.2 Biographical questionnaire
    • 7.3.1.3 Experience of Work and Life Circumstances Questionnaire
    • 7.3.1.4 Aggression in the Workplace Questionnaire
    • 7.3.1.5 IPAT Anxiety Scale
    • 7.3.1.6 Beck Depression Inventory
    • 7.3.1.7 Penn State Worry Questionnaire
    • 7.3.1.8 Social Problem-Solving Inventory-Revised
  • 7.4 Quantitative analysis of test data
  • 7.4.1 Descriptive and other statistics
  • 7.4.1.1 The z-test
    • 7.4.1.2 The t-test
    • 7.4.1.3 Correlation coefficient
    • 7.4.1.4 Analysis of variance
    • 7.4.1.5 Post hoc comparisons (Scheffé)
    • 7.4.1.6 Reliability coefficient
  • 7.5 Impact of response patterns
  • 7.6 Effect size
  • 7.7 Conclusion
• CHAPTER DESCRIPTION OF SAMPLE
  • 8.1 Introduction
  • 8.2 Subjects
  • 8.2.1 Description of the total survey group
    • 8.2.1.1 Gender
    • 8.2.1.2 Age
    • 8.2.1.3 Ethnicity
    • 8.2.1.4 Marital status
    • 8.2.1.5 Home language
    • 8.2.1.6 Organizations
    • 8.2.1.7 Qualifications
    • 8.2.1.8 Position level
    • 8.2.1.9 Work experience
  • 8.3 Conclusion
• CHAPTER RESULTS
  • 9.1 Introduction
  • 9.2 Descriptive statistics
  • 9.3 Cronbach alpha reliability coefficients
  • 9.4 Inferential statistics
  • 9.4.1 Z-test statistic
  • 9.4.1.1 Total sample
  • 1) Experience of Work and Life Circumstances Questionnaire
  • a) Level of stress
  • b) Causes outside the work situation
  • c) Organizational functioning
  • d) Task characteristics
  • e) Physical working conditions and job equipment
  • f) Career matters
  • g) Social matters
  • h) Remuneration, fringe benefits and personnel policy
  • 2) Aggression in the Workplace Questionnaire
  • a) Aggression in the workplace-witnessed
  • b) Aggression in the workplace-experienced
  • 3) IPAT Anxiety Scale
  • a) Factor –C
  • b) Factor L
  • c) Factor O
  • d) Factor -Q
  • e) Factor Q
  • f) Score A
  • g) Score B
  • h) Total anxiety
  • 4) Beck Depression Inventory
  • 5) Penn State Worry Questionnaire
  • 6) Social Problem-Solving Inventory-Revised
  • a) Positive problem orientation
  • b) Negative problem orientation
  • c) Rational problem solving
  • d) Problem definition and formulation
  • e) Generation of alternatives
  • f) Decision making
  • g) Solution implementation and verification
  • h) Impulsivity/carelessness style
  • i) Avoidance style
  • j) Total social problem solving
  • 9.4.2 T-test statistic
  • 9.4.2.1 Gender comparison
  • 1) Experience of Work and Life Circumstances Questionnaire
  • 2) Aggression in the Workplace Questionnaire
  • a) Aggression in the workplace-witnessed
  • b) Aggression in the Workplace-experienced
  • 3) IPAT Anxiety Scale
  • 4) Beck Depression Inventory
  • 5) Penn State Worry Questionnaire
  • 6) Social Problem-Solving Inventory-Revised
  • 9.4.2.2 Marital status
  • 1) Experience of Work and Life Circumstances Questionnaire
  • 2) Aggression in the Workplace Questionnaire
  • a) Aggression in the workplace-witnessed
  • b) Aggression in the workplace-experienced
  • 3) IPAT Anxiety Scale
  • 4) Beck Depression Inventory
  • 5) Penn State Worry Questionnaire
  • 6) Social Problem-Solving Inventory-Revised
  • 9.4.3 Analysis of variance
  • 9.4.3.1 Experience of Work and Life Circumstances Questionnaire
  • 1) Level of stress
  • 2) Causes outside the work situation
  • 3) Organizational functioning
  • 4) Task characteristics
  • 5) Physical working conditions and job equipment
  • 6) Career matters
  • 7) Social matters
  • 8) Remuneration, fringe benefits and personnel policy
  • 9.4.3.2 Aggression in the Workplace Questionnaire
  • 1) Aggression in the workplace -witnessed
  • a) Witnessed overall aggression
  • b) Witnessed expressions of hostility
  • c) Witnessed obstructionism
  • d) Witnessed overt aggression
  • 2) Aggression in the workplace-experienced
  • a) Experienced overall aggression
  • b) Experienced expressions of hostility
  • c) Experienced obstructionism
  • d) Experienced overt aggression
  • 9.4.3.3 IPAT Anxiety Scale
  • 1) Factor –C
  • 2) Factor L 3) Factor O
  • 4) Factor -Q
  • 5) Factor Q
  • 6) Score A
  • 7) Score B
  • 8) Total anxiety
  • 9.4.3.4 Beck Depression Inventory
  • 9.4.3.5 Penn State Worry Questionnaire
  • 9.4.3.6 Social Problem-Solving Inventory-Revised
  • 1) Positive problem orientation
  • 2) Negative problem orientation
  • 3) Rational problem solving
  • 4) Problem definition and formulation
  • 5) Generation of alternatives
  • 6) Decision making
  • 7) Solution implementation and verification
  • 8) Impulsivity/carelessness style
  • 9) Avoidance style
  • 10) Total social problem solving
  • 9.5 Co-relationships
  • 9.5.1 Total Group
  • 9.5.1.1 Experience of Work and Life Circumstances Questionnaire with the Aggression in the Workplace Questionnaire
  • 1) Experience of Work and Life Circumstances Questionnaire with the Aggression in the Workplace Questionnaire-witnessed
  • 2) Experience of Work and Life Circumstances Questionnaire with the Aggression in the Workplace Questionnaire-experienced
  • 9.5.1.2 Experience of Work and Life Circumstances Questionnaire with the IPAT Anxiety Scale
  • 9.5.1.3 Experience of Work and Life Circumstances Questionnaire with the Beck Depression Inventory
  • 9.5.1.4 Experience of Work and Life Circumstances Questionnaire with the Penn State Worry Questionnaire
  • 9.5.1.5 Experience of Work and Life Circumstances Questionnaire with the Social Problem-Solving Inventory-Revised
  • 9.5.2 Gender
  • 9.5.2.1 Experience of Work and Life Circumstances Questionnaire with the Aggression in the Workplace Questionnaire
  • 1) Experience of Work and Life Circumstances Questionnaire with the Aggression in the Workplace Questionnaire-witnessed
  • 2) Experience of Work and Life Circumstances Questionnaire with the Aggression in the Workplace Questionnaire-experienced
  • 9.5.2.2 Experience of Work and Life Circumstances Questionnaire with the IPAT Anxiety Scale
  • 9.5.2.3 Experience of Work and Life Circumstances Questionnaire with the Beck Depression Inventory
  • 9.5.2.4 Experience of Work and Life Circumstances Questionnaire with the Penn State Worry Questionnaire
  • 9.5.2.5 Experience of Work and Life Circumstances Questionnaire with the Social Problem-Solving Inventory-Revised
  • 9.5.3 Marital status
  • 9.5.3.1 Experience of Work and Life Circumstances Questionnaire with the Aggression in the Workplace Questionnaire
  • 1) Experience of Work and Life Circumstances Questionnaire with the Aggression in the Workplace Questionnaire-witnessed
  • 2) Experience of Work and Life Circumstances Questionnaire with the Aggression in the Workplace Questionnaire-experienced
  • 9.5.3.2 Experience of Work and Life Circumstances Questionnaire with the IPAT Anxiety Scale
  • 9.5.3.3 Experience of Work and Life Circumstances Questionnaire with the Beck Depression Inventory
  • 9.5.3.4 Experience of Work and Life Circumstances Questionnaire with the Penn State Worry Questionnaire
  • 9.5.3.5 Experience of Work and Life Circumstances Questionnaire with the Social Problem-Solving Inventory-Revised
  • 9.5.4 Age groups
  • 9.5.4.1 Experience of Work and Life Circumstances Questionnaire with the Aggression in the Workplace Questionnaire
  • 1) Experience of Work and Life Circumstances Questionnaire with the Aggression in the Workplace Questionnaire-witnessed
  • 2) Experience of Work and Life Circumstances Questionnaire with the Aggression in the Workplace Questionnaire-experienced
  • 9.5.4.2 Experience of Work and Life Circumstances Questionnaire with the IPAT Anxiety Scale
  • 9.5.4.3 Experience of Work and Life Circumstances Questionnaire with the Beck Depression Inventory
  • 9.5.4.4 Experience of Work and Life Circumstances Questionnaire with the Penn State Worry Questionnaire
  • 9.5.4.5 Experience of Work and Life Circumstances Questionnaire with the Social Problem-Solving Inventory-Revised
  • 9.5.5 Organization groupings
  • 9.5.5.1 Experience of Work and Life Circumstances Questionnaire with the Aggression in the Workplace Questionnaire
  • 1) Experience of Work and Life Circumstances Questionnaire with the Aggression in the Workplace Questionnaire-witnessed
  • 2) Experience of Work and Life Circumstances Questionnaire with the Aggression in the Workplace Questionnaire-experienced
  • 9.5.5.2 Experience of Work and Life Circumstances Questionnaire with the IPAT Anxiety Scale
  • 9.5.5.3 Experience of Work and Life Circumstances Questionnaire with the Beck Depression Inventory
  • 9.5.5.4 Experience of Work and Life Circumstances Questionnaire with the Penn State Worry Questionnaire
  • 9.5.5.5 Experience of Work and Life Circumstances Questionnaire with the Social Problem-Solving Inventory-Revised
  • 9.5.6 Qualification groupings
  • 9.5.6.1Experience of Work and Life Circumstances Questionnaire with the Aggression in the Workplace Questionnaire
  • 1) Experience of Work and Life Circumstances Questionnaire with the Aggression in the Workplace Questionnaire-witnessed
  • 2) Experience of Work and Life Circumstances Questionnaire with the Aggression in the Workplace Questionnaire-experienced
  • 9.5.6.2 Experience of Work and Life Circumstances Questionnaire with the IPAT Anxiety Scale
  • 9.5.6.3 Experience of Work and Life Circumstances Questionnaire with the Beck Depression Inventory
  • 9.5.6.4 Experience of Work and Life Circumstances Questionnaire with the Penn State Worry Questionnaire
  • 9.5.6.5 Experience of Work and Life Circumstances Questionnaire with the Social Problem-Solving Inventory-Revised
  • 9.5.7 Position levels
  • 9.5.7.1 Experience of Work and Life Circumstances Questionnaire with the Aggression in the Workplace Questionnaire
  • 1) Experience of Work and Life Circumstances Questionnaire with the Aggression in the Workplace Questionnaire-witnessed
  • 2) Experience of Work and Life Circumstances Questionnaire with the Aggression in the Workplace Questionnaire-experienced
  • 9.5.7.2 Experience of Work and Life Circumstances Questionnaire with the IPAT Anxiety Scale
  • 9.5.7.3 Experience of Work and Life Circumstances Questionnaire with the Beck Depression Inventory
  • 9.5.7.4 Experience of Work and Life Circumstances Questionnaire with the Penn State Worry Questionnaire
  • 9.5.7.5 Experience of Work and Life Circumstances Questionnaire with the Social Problem-Solving Inventory-Revised
  • 9.6 Effect size, d
  • 9.7 Conclusion
• CHAPTER DISCUSSION
  • 10.1 Introduction
  • 10.2 Cronbach alpha reliability coefficients
  • 10.2.1 Experience of Work and Life Circumstances Questionnaire
  • 10.2.2 Aggression in the Workplace Questionnaire
  • 10.2.3 IPAT Anxiety Scale
  • 10.2.4 Beck Depression Inventory
  • 10.2.5 Penn State Worry Questionnaire
  • 10.2.6 Social Problem-Solving Inventory–Revised
  • 10.3 Experience of stress and its consequences
  • 10.3.1 Total sample, gender, marital status, and age
  • 10.3.2 Type of organization grouping
    • 10.3.2.1 Organization grouping with qualification level
    • 10.3.2.2 Organization grouping with position level
    • 10.3.2.3 Organization grouping with age
    • 10.3.3 Qualification level
    • 10.3.3.1 Qualification level with age
    • 10.3.3.2 Qualification level with position level
  • 10.3.4 Position level
  • 10.3.4.1 Position level with age
  • 10.4 Coping
  • 10.5 Overall assessment of effect size
  • 10.6 Some limitations of the present research
  • 10.7 Further research
  • 10.7 Conclusion
  • LIST OF REFERENCES
  • APPENDIX A
  • APPENDIX B

GET THE COMPLETE PROJECT
STRESS IN THE WORKPLACE: THE PHENOMENON, SOME KEY CORRELATES AND PROBLEM SOLVING APPROACHES