Language in Education Policy in Botswana – Project topics materials

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Criticisms of the Process Approach

It can be seen that the process approach offers many possibilities for fostering and developing the writing skills of second language learners as it has the potential for interactive classroom work. It is equally amenable to use in the communicative approach to the teaching of language favoured by the Botswana education policy. However, the approach is not without its critics. Among the critics of the process is Horowitz (1986), who derides the approach for lacking purpose, and sees it as leaving a lot to chance in the classroom. Young (1978) argues that the approach emphasizes fluency over accuracy. Schmidt (1990, 1994) says that accuracy is a manifestation of conscious language learning that arises from the learner’s ‘awareness’, ‘control’, and ‘attention’ to language input.

Writing at Secondary School Level

At secondary school level, there are immediate and long term objectives for writing. Extended writing or composition writing is taught to enable students to develop writing skills to cope with their academic work, as well as develop functional writing skills to manage the type of writing needed both inside and outside the school situation. Writing serves as an important tool for effective participation and functioning of an individual in the society. Students at this level depend to a large degree on extended writing skills in examinations, and the process approach to writing is valuable in most subjects. In the communicative approach to the teaching of English which is recommended and emphasized throughout the junior (Republic of Botswana, 1996) and senior secondary (Republic of Botswana, 2000) English syllabi, writing is seen as a process. Students are guided to plan, draft and revise their writing and are also encouraged to ‘learn to write’ as opposed to ‘writing to learn’ (Tribble, 1996).

Self and Peer Evaluation of Writing

Self and peer evaluation are aspects of the process approach to writing and evaluation of such works. The process approach emphasizes the involvement of students in their own work as well as the work of their peers. It is believed that the very nature of writing makes it a controlled and revisable activity (White and Arndt, 1991). Therefore, students must be taught to realize that their writing can be revised and changes made during the process. Also, students need to be guided to look for their own errors. To help students evaluate their own work, the teacher could provide them with a short grid or rubric to use when revising or evaluating their own work (Cox, 2002). Examples of such assessment tools are rubrics, writing checklists, including peer and individual checklists.

Data Collection Methods

The study adopted the qualitative approach, using a variety of methods or triangulation. As earlier noted, Cohen, Manion and Morrison (2005) define triangulation as the use of two or more methods of data collection in the study of some aspect of human behaviour. Triangulation also includes the use of various sources (using more than one stakeholder group or representatives of stakeholder groups, such as teachers, students, curriculum developers, school inspectors and so on). A qualitative approach, with a variety of methods or triangulation was used in this study. This involved the use of two or more methods of data collection in the study of human behaviour.

Documents and Artifacts

In addition to the above, students’ artifacts were examined for each composition writing lesson using protocol D (See appendix D). The artifacts examined included copies of the students’ draft compositions, composition writing exercise books to verify the frequency of composition writing and other details. The pictures brought by the students for one of the lessons including the prescribed textbooks used by both students and teachers were also examined. Copies of the students’ artifacts were obtained, and photocopied. Copies of the textbooks used were also obtained. These were noted and recorded for subsequent reference and analysis. Literature and review of research on the process and product approaches to composition writing continued throughout the study.

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How do you choose composition topics for students to write on?

In answer to the question above, the three teachers said they normally pick topics from the students’ reading comprehension cycles or they use their discretion to pick topics that are related to the students’ everyday lives. At times they chose topics linked to current events in the society. Such topics are those linked to HIV/AIDS, the recent spate of passion killings and the introduction of school fees in public schools. One of the teachers added that even though they are supposed to pick topics from the common scheme topics which they prepare at the beginning of every school term. They added that they have the freedom to choose topics which they consider to be suitable for their students.

CONTENTS :

CHAPTER ONE
- 1. INTRODUCTION
  - 1.1. Background
  - 1.2. Problem Statement
  - 1.3. Aim of Study
  - 1.4. Research Objectives
  - 1.5. Research Questions
  - 1.6. Motivation/Rationale for the Research
  - 1.7. Literature Reviewed
  - 1.8. Research Methods
  - 1.9. Research Protocols
  - 1.10. The Sample
  - 1.11. Limitations of the Study
  - 1.12. Definition of Terms
  - 1.13. Chapter Division
  - 1.14. Summary
CHAPTER TWO
- 2. LITERATURE REVIEW
  - 2.1. Introduction
  - 2.2. Writing
  - 2.3. Problems of ESL Writing
  - 2.4. Foundation Issues in Writing
  - 2.5. Language in Education Policy in Botswana
  - 2.6. ESL Writing in Botswana
  - 2.7. Writing Process Theories
  - 2.7.1. Hayes (1996) Models of Writing
  - 2.7.2. The Product Approach to Writing
  - 2.7.3. Writing as a Process
  - 2.7.4. The Composing Process
  - 2.7.5. Criticisms of the Process Approach
  - 2.7.6. Writing at Secondary School Level
  - 2.7.7. Assessment of Learners’ Writing
  - 2.7.8. Self and Peer Evaluation of Writing
  - 2.8. Summary
CHAPTER THREE
- 3. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
  - 3.1. Introduction
  - 3.2. Research Methodology
  - 3.2.1. Qualitative Research
  - 3.2.2. The Nature of Qualitative Research
  - 3.3. Research Design
  - 3.3.1. Conceptual Framework/Design of the Study
  - 3.3.2. Gaining Entry into the Field
  - 3.3.3. The School Settings and the Sample
  - 3.3.4. Background of the Student Participants
  - 3.3.5. Students’ Second Language Background
  - 3.3.6. Background of the Teachers
  - 3.3.6.1. Teacher A
  - 3.3.6.2 Teacher B
  - 3.3.6.3 Teacher C
  - 3.4. The Research Protocols
  - 3.5. Data Collection Methods
  - 3.5.1. Observation
  - 3.5.2. Interviews
  - 3.5.3. Documents and Artifacts
  - 3.5.4. A summary of the data collection procedure
CHAPTER FOUR
- 4. DATA PRESENTATION AND DATA ANALYSIS
  - 4.1. Introduction
  - 4.1.1. Aim of Study
  - 4.1.2. Research Objectives
  - 4.1.3. Research Questions
  - 4.2. DATA PRESENTATION
  - 4.2.1. Research Question
  - 4.2.1.1 Interview with Teachers – (Appendix B)
  - 4.2.1.2 Interview with students (Appendix C):
  - 4.2.1.3 Observation of Teachers and Students
  - 4.2.1.4 First Observation of Teacher A:
  - 4.2.1.5 The Second Observation of Teacher A, 12 July
  - 4.2.1.6 Observation of Teacher B:
  - 4.2.1.7 First Observation of Teacher C – 28 May, 2007:
  - 4.2.1.8 Second Observation of Teacher C – 05 July, 2007:
  - 4.2.2. Research Question
  - 4.2.2.1 Interview with Teachers (Appendix B):
  - 4.2.2.2 The Students’ Artifacts
  - 4.2.3. Research Question 3:
  - 4.2.4. Research Question
  - 4.3. DATA ANALYSIS
  - 4.3.1. Research Question
  - 4.3.1.1 Writing on a given topic
  - 4.3.1.2 Lack of adequate supervision of writing
  - 4.3.1.3 Non Compliance with Official Policy
  - 4.3.1.4 Modeling
  - 4.3.1.5 Composition taught as ‘isolated’ events
  - 4.3.1.6 Time Limitations
  - 4.3.1.7 Teacher Feedback in Writing
  - 4.3.1.8 Assessment of the written product
  - 4.3.1.9 Elements of Process Writing
  - 4.3.2. Research Question
  - 4.3.2.1 Product Oriented Approach to Writing
CHAPTER FIVE 5. DISCUSSION, IMPLICATIONS, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS