Theories and models of adjustment and academic performance

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Help-seeking

According to Ames (1983) “help-seeking is conceptualized as an achievement behaviour involving the search for and employment of a strategy to obtain success. In this context, help-seeking is considered a proactive problem-solving strategy employed by persons who desire to achieve some goal” (p. 165). In order for students to effectively seek help, they first have to identify the problem they need assistance with (Newman, 2002), accept that they need help with a particular problem, and believe that going for help will be beneficial. Numerous students, during their time at university, may require psychological or academic assistance to help them with inter-personal, social, academic or career related problems. As such, knowing where to go for help, knowing what type of help services are available on campus, and to utilize the available help services is of utmost importance to students.

Academic motivation

One theoretical approach that has been widely used to explain the relationship between students‟ motivation and their academic performance is Deci and Ryan‟s (1985, 1991) self-determination theory. According to their theory, students‟ academic behaviour at university is either intrinsically motivated, extrinsically motivated or amotivated. Intrinsic motivation may be defined as “the drive to pursue an activity simply for the pleasure derived from it” (Fairchild, Horst, Finney, & Barron, 2005, p. 332). Reading additional books not prescribed for a particular course out of interest to learn more because a student is enjoying the subject, or attending extra-curriculum lectures because students find them interesting or stimulating are examples of academic intrinsic motivated behaviour. Extrinsic motivation refers to behaviour that is directed outwards.

Perceived stress

According to Putwain (2007), there are two distinct ways to defining the term stress. Stress may either refer to the characteristics, stimuli or factors which are responsible for causing stress; or it may refer to the subjective, personal experience felt by persons, which usually includes feelings of anxiety, worry or guilt. Students at university may experience stress because of intense and demanding academic requirements (e.g., preparing and studying for upcoming exams or assignments, meeting deadlines, managing a high course load by attending lectures and tutorials, adjusting to a new university environment). Academic factors aside, students at university may also experience stress due to financial problems, relationship difficulties or because of pressure and expectations from parents and family members to perform well at university.

Academic overload

Academic overload refers to students‟ feelings of being overwhelmed by their academic requirements or responsibilities while pursuing a degree at university. Academically overloaded students might feel that there is insufficient time to effectively and adequately manage all academic tasks (e.g. tests, exams, research assignments, essays, oral presentations). For example, in a survey conducted with 261 217 first year college students at 462 two and four year institutions, it was found that 30% of the students felt overwhelmed by their academic requirements (Reisberg, 2000). Students may cope with and/or avoid academic overload at university by learning how to effectively manage their curriculum, by learning and applying time management skills, as well as learning effective study techniques. Some researchers argue that particularly part-time students are likely to feel overloaded and stressed (Watts & Pickering, 2000

Test-anxiety

Test anxiety, as defined by Suinn (1968), refers to the “[…] inability to think or remember, a feeling of tension, and difficulty in reading and comprehending simple sentences or directions on an examination” (p. 385).Similarly, Zeidner (1998) defined test-anxiety as a “[…] set of phenomenological, physiological, and behavioural responses that accompany concern about possible negative consequences or failure on an exam or similar evaluative situation” (p. 17). Students who experience test-anxiety during an examination have been reported to feel tense and to worry about a possible negative outcome (Gierl & Rogers, 1996). Feeling slightly nervous and tense, and experiencing low to moderate levels of stress about an upcoming examination is considered to be normal. Elevated levels of test-anxiety, however, may have adverse consequences for students‟ academic success at university.

READ PERCEPTIONS OF HISTORY EDUCATION WITHIN BLACK SECONDARY SCHOOLS IN SOUTH AFRICA, 1948–1994

Self-efficacy

Self-efficacy may be defined as “people‟s judgement of their capabilities to organize and execute courses of action required to attain designated types of performances” (Bandura, 1986, p. 395). In the context of higher education, self-efficacy refers to an individuals‟ ability to independently and efficiently accomplish academic tasks (Schunk, 1991). Students with sufficient levels of self-efficacy may believe in their abilities to perform and carry out tasks at university. They are likely to perceive difficulties and demanding tasks as a challenge and not as a threat. Students with identical skills levels may perform differently academically because of different levels of perceived self-efficacy (Bandura, 1986).

Table of Contents :

Page
COVER PAGE
ABSTRACT
DECLARATION
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
TABLE OF CONTENTS
LIST OF TABLES
LIST OF FIGURES
Chapter One: Introduction
- 1.1 Higher education in South Africa
- 1.2 Addressing past inequalities and challenges in higher education
- 1.3 Trends of international and national dropout and graduation rates
- 1.4 Equity in academic performance
- 1.5 Challenges for historically disadvantaged students at university
- 1.6 Intervention and support programs for students at university
- 1.7 Problem statement of study
  - 1.7.1 Background of problem statement
  - 1.7.2 Problem statement
- 1.8 Purpose and aims of study
- 1.9 Outline of chapters
Chapter Two: Literature Review
- 2.1 Theories and models of adjustment and academic performance
- 2.2 Academic performance
- 2.3 Adjustment
- 2.4 Psychosocial predictors of adjustment and academic performance
  - 2.4.1 Help-seeking
  - 2.4.2 Academic motivation
  - 2.4.3 Self-esteem
  - 2.4.4 Perceived stress
  - 2.4.5 Academic overload
  - 2.4.6 Test-anxiety
  - 2.4.7 Self-efficacy
  - 2.4.8 Perceived social support
- 2.5 Consideration of moderator variables
  - 2.5.1 Gender differences and gender as moderator
  - 2.5.2 Age differences and age as moderator
  - 2.5.3 Residence status differences and residence status as moderator
- 2.6 Research model and summary of hypotheses based on previous research
  - 2.6.1 Hypothesis 1 – Relationships between independent variables, mediator variable and dependent variable
  - 2.6.2 Hypothesis 2 – Model comparison
  - 2.6.3 Hypothesis 3 – Model extension
  - 2.6.4 Hypothesis 4 – Age, gender, and students‟ residence status as moderators
- 2.7 Research context of the present study
Chapter Three: Method
- 3.1 Procedure
- 3.2 Research measures
  - 3.2.1 Demographic measures
  - 3.2.2 Independent measures
  - 3.2.2.1 Help-seeking
  - 3.2.2.2 Academic motivation
  - 3.2.2.3 Self-esteem
  - 3.2.2.4 Perceived stress
  - 3.2.2.5 Academic overload
  - 3.2.2.6 Test anxiety
  - 3.2.2.7 Self-efficacy
  - 3.2.2.8 Perceived Social Support from friends and family
  - 3.2.3 Adjustment as mediator variable
  - 3.2.4 Academic performance as dependent variable
- 3.3 Data analysis procedures
  - 3.3.1 Reliability analysis
  - 3.3.2 Descriptive and inferential statistics
- 3.3.2.1 Group comparison
  - 3.3.3 Pearson‟s correlation matrix
  - 3.3.4 Path analysis
- 3.3.4.1 Model definition in path analysis
- 3.3.4.2 Assumptions of path analysis
- 3.3.4.3 Sample size considerations
- 3.3.4.4 Model identification
- 3.3.4.5 Model fit and Goodness of fit statistics
- 3.3.4.6 Model interpretation
- 3.3.4.7 Model comparison (nested models approach)
- 3.3.4.8 Test for moderators
Chapter Four: Results
Chapter Five: Discussion