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The rhinoceros
Despite growing human populations and the re-tasking of land towards agricultural and industrial developments in the place of natural habitats, South Africa is still characterised by its abundant and unique species of wildlife and counts as one of the countries with the highest biodiversity in the world (South African National Biodiversity Institute, 2015). While the most popular species associated with Africa are the “Big Five” including elephant (Loxadanta Africana), leopard (Panthera pardus), buffalo (Syncerus caffer), lion (Panthera leo) and rhinoceros (Rhinocerotidae), Africa is home to many more species of various sizes and habitats. The rhinoceros, along with the elephant is one of the biggest living terrestrial species. Often described as the charismatic mega herbivore, it is attracting many tourists yearly (Lindsey et al., 2007). Alarmingly, this diverse range of species is at different risks of extinction. Five remaining rhinoceros species exist in the world (Figure 2-1) and are all listed in the IUCN list of endangered species (Emslie et al., 2016). The white rhinoceros is listed near threatened; the greater one-horned rhinoceros; is listed as vulnerable and the black rhinoceros, the Sumatran rhinoceros and the Javan rhinoceros are listed as critically endangered (Emslie et al., 2016).
The Southern white rhinoceros (Ceratotherium simum simum) represents the white rhinoceros subspecies occurring in South Africa and Namibia, Botswana, Zimbabwe, Swaziland and Mozambique. It has also been introduced to Kenya, Uganda and Zambia (Dinerstein, 2011). However, South Africa with 93% of the total number of the southern subspecies, holds the majority of the overall population (Milliken & Shaw, 2012). Weighing up to 2700 kg, it is the biggest of all rhino species. The white rhinoceros is a grazer and an important umbrella species in the ecosystem. As one of the last living mega-herbivores species, Cromsigt and te Beest (2014) suggested that it plays an important role in the maintenance of the African grassland, in enhancing plant diversity and in creating grazing lawns. The increase in short grass areas may lead to the creation of habitats for several other species such as birds, insects, small mammals and ungulates. The white rhino is thus speculated to represent a keystone species which increases grassland heterogeneity within the ecosystem (Cromsigt & te Beest, 2014).
Once abundant, the white rhinoceros was close to extinction due to malicious poaching of the animals for their horns at the end of the 19th century. With less than 100 animals left in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa committed to what is known today as one of the biggest conservation achievements in the world. From a single population of 20 to 50 rhinoceros in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa, the numbers of rhinoceros grew back to more than 20,000 animals in the 21st century (Emslie et al., 2016)
1. Chapter 1: Introduction
1.1 The poaching crisis
1.2 Hypotheses
1.3 Objectives
2. Chapter 2: Literature review
2.1 The rhinoceros
2.2 The new poaching crisis
2.3 Principles in the treatment of infected wound
2.4 Bacterial profile of wounds in rhinos
2.5 Enrofloxacin
2.6 Principles of pain management
2.7 Pharmacokinetics
2.8 Cytochrome P450 enzymes
2.9 Conclusion
Chapter 3: Enrofloxacin in white rhinoceros (Ceratotherium simum) – a treatment option for injured poaching victims?
3.1 Abstract .
3.2 Introduction .
3.3 Materials and Methods .
3.4 Results
3.5 Discussion
3.6 Acknowledgements
3.7 Supplementary Information
4. Chapter 4: Is the White Rhinoceros a Large Horse? The Use of Allometry and Pharmacokinetic Modelling to Evaluate the Importance of Interspecies Differences for One of Africa’s Iconic Species
4.1 Abstract
4.2 Introduction
4.3 Results
4.4 Discussion .
4.5 Materials and methods
4.6 Acknowledgements .
4.7 Supplementary information
5. Chapter 5: A Study of the Pharmacokinetics and Thromboxane Inhibitory Activity of a Single Intramuscular Dose of Carprofen as a Means to Establish its Potential Use as an Analgesic Drug in White Rhinoceros
5.1 Abstract .
5.2 Introduction
5.3 Materials and Methods
5.4 Results
5.5 Discussion
5.6 Acknowledgements
5.7 Supplementary information
6. Chapter 6: Phylogenetic analysis of the cytochrome P450 (CYP450) nucleotide sequence of the horse and predicted CYP450 of the white rhinoceros (Ceratotherium simum) and other mammalian species
7. Chapter 7: General discussion
8. Chapter 8: References
