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Background
Animals are an integral part of human lives, as sources of food, clothing, transportation or companionship (Delgado et al., 1999). Infections of domestic and wild animals that are ransmitted directly or indirectly by ticks are major causes of morbidity and mortality (Norval et al., 2004) and the overall production losses in Africa due directly or indirectly to ticks has been estimated at US$720 million per year (Kaaya & Hassan, 2000).
To date, chemical treatment of host animals with acaricides remains the method of choice to reduce the influence of the parasites on animal and human health. Unfortunately, years of use, overuse and in many cases abuse of the available active pharmaceutical compounds have resulted in large scale resistance in these parasites. Other problems with acaricide overuse include accumulation of these chemicals in the environment with resultant pasture and water toxicity (van Wieren et al., 2016). In an attempt to reduce these problems, much focus has been placed on the search for alternative tick control strategies that are devoid of resistance and are environmentally friendly. Among other control measures, the development of medicinal plants as tick repellents/acaricides has been advocated (Gassner et al., 1997).
Plant preparations have been used for treatment of different ailments in animals from time immemorial and form the bulk of the growing field of ethnoveterinary medicine (McCorkle, 995). South Africa is endowed with a rich flora, with only a fraction of its plants having been rigorously studied and analyzed for their biological activity against ticks. With an estimated 87% of medications used globally against microbial and parasitic infections being derived from natural products, in particular higher plants, the benefits of ethnoveterinary medicine in primary animal healthcare are clearly evident (Martin et al., 2001). Possibly, bioactive products from plant extracts, fractions and isolated compounds may constitute prototypes for the development of promising alternatives to chemical acaricides.
CHAPTER 1 Introduction
1.1. Background
1.2 Hypothesis
1.3 Problem statement
1.4 Aim
1.5 Objectives
CHAPTER 2 The role of ticks in animal health and problems encountered in using synthetic, chemical acaricides
2.1 Economic importance of ticks
2.2 Typical ticks of domestic animals
2.3 Behavioural biology of ticks .
2.4 Tick-host interractions
2.5 Direct economic losses due to ticks
2.6 Indirect economic losses due to ticks
2.7 Classes of acaricides and their mechanisms of action
2.8 Resistance of ticks to commonly used acaricides
2.9 Management of resistance
2.10 Potential of medicinal plants for alternate control strategies
2.11 Conclusions
CHAPTER 3 Plant extracts to control ticks of veterinary and medical importance: A review .
3.1 Introduction .
3.2 Materials and Methods
3.3. Results and Discussion
3.4. Conclusions
CHAPTER 4 Pesticidal plants as possible alternatives to synthetic, chemical acaricides in tick control: A systematic review and meta-analysis
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Materials and Methods
4.4 Discussion
4.5 Recommendations
4.6 Conclusions
CHAPTER 5 In vitro bioassays used in evaluating plant extracts for tick repellent and acaricidal properties: A critical review .
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Materials and Methods
5.3 Results
5.4 Discussion
5.5 Conclusions
CHAPTER 6 In vitro acaricidal efficacy against Rhipicephalus turanicus and cytotoxicity of seventeen South African ethnoveterinary plant species
CHAPTER 7 Isolation and characterization of two acaricidal compounds from Calpurnia aurea subsp. aurea (Fabaceae) leaf extract
CHAPTER 8 Preliminary studies on the possible mechanism of action of Calpurnia aurea subsp. aurea (Fabaceae) leaf extract and isolated compounds
CHAPTER 9 Overall discussion, recommendations and future research directions
CHAPTER 10
References
