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Mango production and international trade
A large number of mango varieties are commercially grown in different parts of the world, some with determinate and others with indeterminate growth pattern. Within international trade, fresh mango is one of the main products. It possesses a fifth place on total fruit crop production globally (Tharanathan et al., 2006), accounting for over one-third of the worldwide production on tropical fruits (Maneepun and Yunchalad, 2004). Mangoes are grown on all continents (Galán Saúco, 2004), with at least 87 countries reported to be involved in mango production by the year 2000 (Galán Saúco, 2004; Tharanathan et al., 2006). Around 25 million tons were grown in 2000 (Galán Saúco, 2002; Galán Saúco, 2004; Maneepun and Yunchalad, 2004) of which three-quarters in Asian countries. India is by far world leader with almost half of the global mango production, however exports only a very small amount of this. Mexico, Pakistan and the Philippines are the most important exporters for fresh mangoes with 41%, 7.6% and 7.8% of the global supply respectively (Galán Saúco, 2002; Galán Saúco, 2004).
International trade in mango has risen significantly by the end of the twentieth century (Galán Saúco, 2004), enabled by improved post-harvest techniques (Maneepun and Yunchalad, 2004). Over a million tons were traded in 2006 (FAOSTAT). Large markets for fresh produce are the EU, North-America and Asia (Galán Saúco, 2002; Galán Saúco, 2004). In Africa, Nigeria produces the largest amount of mangoes on the continent and occupies the 8th position in the world ranking of mango producing countries as at 2002, producing 730,000 metric tonnes annually (FAO stat cited by Yusuf and Salau, 2007) followed by Kenya in the 9th position but ranks second in terms of exports after South Africa. Common varieties grown in Kenya and Tanzania include Apple, Baribo, Dodo, Haden, Keitt, Kent, Van Dyke, Tommy Atkins, Ngowe, Sensation and local landraces. Apple and Ngowe varieties have high demand by the export market sub-sector. Other major mango producing countries on the continent include Sudan, Egypt, Madagascar and Tanzania (Yusuf and Salau, 2007). According to data presented at the FAO Inter-Governmental Sub-Group on tropical fruits, mango exports from Africa were estimated at 35-40,000 tons annually and worth over USD 42 million annually (ICIPE, 2006; Lux et al., 2003). The EU is the largest destination market for mangoes exported from Africa, followed by the Middle East (Lux et al., 2003). Both fresh and processed mango are been exported to the European countries with France as the major importer followed by the United States. Both account for 70% of the world mango import (Yusuf and Salau, 2007). In East and West Africa, over 80% of the produce comes from smallholders for both domestic and urba export markets (ICIPE, 2006).
Despite the substantial increase in mango exports in recent years, the share of all African suppliers to European markets remains below 20% (ICIPE, 2006) as several factors constrain mango production, among which insect pests are regarded as among the most important (Acland, 1971; Griesbach, 1992; Joubert et al., 2000; Varela, et al., 2006; ICIPE, 2006). Heavy losses are also being incurred by exporters whose mango shipments infested with these quarantine pests are intercepted and destroyed at the entry of EU markets because when insect pests are encounteredon fruit, they must be identified before the fruit can be shipped. Until such time as identificationcan be made, the fruit is held in cold storage at a large cost to both the producer and the shipper.
CHAPTER ONE General Introduction.
1.1 Background information .
1.2 Justification
1.3 Hypotheses.
1.4 Objectives of the study.
1.4.1 General objective .
1.4.2 Specific objectives
CHAPTER TWO Literature Review
2.1 MANGO
2.2 Mealybug
CHAPTER THREE Distribution, Host-Plant Relationships and Natural Enemies of Rastrococcus iceryoides Green (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae) in Kenya and Tanzania.
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Materials and Methods.
3.2.1 Field surveys .
3.2.2 Plant collection, handling and assessment of infestation
3.2.3 Parasitoid, predator and ant species associated with R. iceryoides
3.2.4 Statistical analysis
3.3 Results
3.4 Discussion .
CHAPTER FOUR Effect of host plant on life history and population growth parameters of Rastrococcus iceryoides Green (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae)
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Materials and Methods.
4.3.1 Development, survivorship and sex ratio
4.3.2.Longevity and reproduction.
4.3.3 Morphometric analysi
4.3.4 Age-specific fecundity and age-specific survivorship
4.3.5 Population growth statistics
4.4 Discussion .
CHAPTER FIVE Effect of plant species on life history parameters and bio-control potential of Anagyrus pseudococci Girault (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae), parasitoid of Rastrococcus iceryoides (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae) in Africa
5.1 Introduction.
5.2 Materials and Method
5.3.1 Effect of host plant on R. iceryoides acceptability for oviposition and suitability of the immature development of A. pseudococci
5.3.2 Effects of host plants on parasitoid fitness parameters
5.3.2.1 Parasitoid adult size
5.3.3 Parasitoid adult longevity
5.3.4 Longevity of non-ovipositing female under different feeding regime.
5.3.5 Effect of host plant and female age on egg load.
5.3.6 Demographic growth parameters.
5.4 Discussion
CHAPTER SIX Interaction between the arboreal weaver ant, Oecophylla longinoda (Hymenoptera: Formicidae), Anagyrus pseudococci Girault (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae) and Rastrococcus iceryoides Green (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae) under laboratory conditions
CHAPTER SEVEN Effects of climatic factors on the occurrence and seasonal variation in populations of Rastrococcus iceryoides (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae) and its associated natural enemies: implications for biological control.
