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Context of the Universities
With the massification of higher education and globalization pressures recently, Tanzania has engaged in a process of expanding both its public and private universities. In 2004/05 there were only 24 universities and university colleges that provided a service for 37,667 students. By 2008/09 the number of universities and university colleges had increased to 31, serving 95,525 students. There was a further increase of 17.9% between the academic years 2009/2010- 2010/2011 which resulted in about 139,638 students being enrolled in universities in the year 2010/2011. This included 104,129 in 11 public universities and 35,509 in 21 non-public universities and university colleges (URT, 2011:17). Recently, the Admissions Guidebook for Higher Education Institution in Tanzania indicates that there are 47 universities and university colleges and centres scattered around different regions (TCU, 2013:6). Other Southern Africa Development Cooperation (SADC) countries have shown a similar trend (Watson et al., 2009, Kotecha, Wilson-Strydom & Fongwa, 2012). For more than a decade now, in response to development challenges and unemployment, universities in various parts of the world including Tanzania have incorporated entrepreneurship education into their academic programmes. Different approaches have been used at different universities. In this study, entrepreneurship education is explored in two Tanzanian universities with different histories and trajectories.
The University of Dar es Salaam is among the oldest universities in Tanzania. It was established in 1961 as a College of the University of London and then became a Constituent College of the University of East Africa in 1963. In 1970 the East African Authority took the decision to split the then University of East Africa into three independent universities, one each in Kenya, in Uganda and in Tanzania (SARUA, 2009). From 1970 it became a national university with its goal that of producing experts displaying the highest level of independent, analytical thinking and problem-solving skills. The University of Dar es Salaam is made up of several colleges and schools with various departments. The colleges include the College of Engineering and Technology; the College of Arts and Social Sciences; and the College of Natural and Applied Sciences. The schools include the University of Dar es Salaam School of Law; the University of Dar es Salaam Business School; the School of Education; the School of Journalism and Mass Communication; and the School of Informatics and Communication Technology1.
In terms of the enrolment of undergraduate students, there has been a remarkable increase at the university from 3,357 in 1994/1995 to 12,265 in 2003/2004 and 16,510 in 2009/10. This expansion has created many challenges in terms of teaching and learning approaches. It is thought that there is too much emphasis on theory at the expense of practical and professional skills which are essential in a dynamic and competitive labour market.2 The university has highlighted the above-mentioned challenges in some tracer studies and academic audit reports. Thus, the University of Dar es Salaam has attempted to respond to political and economic changes in the country by reviewing its curricula and other academic programmes with the aim of reducing the employability problems faced by its graduates (UDSM, 2007). Ways to improve the employability of graduates include enhancing their entrepreneurial skills by means of various programmes so that they may become job creators (UDSM, 2007). The promotion of entrepreneurial skills among graduates from different programmes was initiated with the establishment of a policy of entrepreneurship development (UDSM, 2007).
The Impact of Socio-Economic and Political Context on Entrepreneurship Education
The socio-economic environment has an impact on the extent and status of entrepreneurship education within universities through its policy influence and other supportive structures such as legal and financial ones. Recently, socio-economic and political context has been challenged by globalization processes; this has resulted in government and higher education institutions attempting to respond by establishing relevant policies and development strategies (Cloete et al., 2011). With regard to government policy, a number of scholars have explained the role of the national policy context in promoting entrepreneurship, using various approaches. Among these is the Global Entrepreneurship Monitor (GEM) model which was developed as a project by different teams around world under the leadership of Babson College and the London Business School (De Clercq & Crijns, 2007). The model was designed in 1998 as an assessment programme whereby information from various countries was collected to facilitate a comparison of levels of entrepreneurial activity and to determine national differences in terms of policies which might affect entrepreneurial tendencies (Reynolds et al., 2005).
Governments in countries like the United Kingdom have been supporting graduate entrepreneurship strategies. An example is the National Council for Graduate Entrepreneurship (NCGE) which was initiated in 2004 (Pittaway & Cope, 2007). The aim of this council was to create a link between industry, students and higher education institutions so that an enterprise culture could be established in UK institutions and entrepreneurial behaviour in students could be encouraged (Gibb & Hannon, 2006). As a result of government support, higher education institutions have been fully engaged in entrepreneurial activities. In 2007, the Danish government formulated a policy geared to promote entrepreneurship to graduates. The policy required all students in higher education institutions to attend entrepreneurship education courses (European Commission, 2008). A survey conducted by the Young Enterprise Denmark (2011) indicates that entrepreneurial training at university level has become popular with students who had previously had an entrepreneurship course as well as with those who did not have a course in entrepreneurship. It has also been shown that training in entrepreneurship encourages innovation, especially in the form of business creation. This indicates that public policy could can either support or hinder an institution‟s efforts to include entrepreneurship education in its curriculum (European Commission, 2008).
Perceived Feasibility
Perceived feasibility has been conceptualized as structures and instruments that make the integration of entrepreneurship education within the curriculum possible. In the context of a public university, the structures include the national policy frameworks, university policy and models that universities employ in implementing entrepreneurship education initiatives. In a cross-disciplinary environment the nature of the disciplines can influence the feasibility perceptions of stake-holders. With reference to Tanzania, the higher education system, especially public universities, operates in terms of relevant government policies, but there are some issues that are controlled at a university level. Some government policies have been drawn up in response to the general socio-economic and political situation. In this regard, embedding entrepreneurship in the education system is among the responses to labour market uncertainties, following globalization pressures and an increase in the number of universities. It also extends to „what the policy advocates‟; perceptions of the policy makers; supportive structures and implementation strategies. However, the existence of government policy is important because it provides a guide concerning the role that universities are expected to play in terms of including entrepreneurial skills in the curriculum. The roles of other stake-holders may also be clearly advocated in the policy and some pointers to implementation strategies may also be addressed.
The perceptions of government policy-makers can also play a significant role in the nature of the policy. The way they perceive entrepreneurship education and its incorporation into the higher education system may affect the role that they play. How they see innovation for instance, may influence their thoughts about its feasibility and the support that they give to universities in terms of its budget. Some may fear that when the future graduates come up with novel working skills, their positions may be threaten. However, this assumption has not yet been tested.
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION AND STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Main Research Question
1.3 Context of the Universities
1.4 The Rationale for the Study
1.5 The Significance of the Study
1.6 The Structure of the Dissertation
1.7 Conclusion
CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Concepts of Entrepreneurship
2.3 The Implementation of Entrepreneurship Education within Institutions
2.4 The Role of Entrepreneurship Education in Economic Growth and Development
2.5 The Impact of Socio-Economic and Political Context on Entrepreneurship Education
2.6 The Impact of Socio-Economic and Political Contexts on Entrepreneurship Education in Tanzania
2.7 The Influence of Stakeholders in Promoting Entrepreneurship
2.8 Teaching and Learning Entrepreneurship
2.9 Conclusion
CHAPTER 3: CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
3.1 Introduction
3.2 The Propensity to Act
3.3 Perceived Desirability
3.4 Perceived Feasibility
3.5 Entrepreneurship Education Intention
3.6 Conclusion
CHAPTER 4: METHODOLOGY
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Research Paradigm
4.3 Study Design
4.4 Sample Population
4.5 Sampling Procedures
4.6 Data Collection Methods and Procedures
4.7 Data Analysis
4.8 Obtaining Access
4.9 Validity and Reliability
4.10 Limitations of the Research
4.11 Ethical Considerations
4.12 Conclusion
CHAPTER 5: FINDINGS
5.1 Introduction
5.2 University and National Policy Context
5.3 Understanding and Perceptions of Entrepreneurship among Stakeholders
5.4 Examining Entrepreneurship Development Strategies
5.5 Conclusion
CHAPTER 6: DISCUSSION
6.1 Introduction
6.2 The Feasibility of Entrepreneurship Education at Universities in Tanzania
6.3 The Desirability of Entrepreneurship Education at Institutions in Tanzania
6.4 Conclusion
CHAPTER 7 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Conclusions
7.3 Recommendations
7.4 Further Research Areas
