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Human-Machine-Organisation Interaction
How the human will apply the system in the work domain has to be considered in conjunction with the technical aspects from the start of the development process, in the analysis phase. This includes the complex relationships between the humans (social and cognitive behaviour), business processes (organisation) and technical means in unison. Systems are developed across traditional boundaries of organisation, discipline and function. Integration is enabled through information and communication technologies. Effective design should result in coordinated collaboration between distributed human operators for distributed sense-making and decision-making. If the purpose of the system is not fulfilled by people in the organisation, the system is a failure, despite having a technically sound design. The design has to consider the complex relationships among the humans, business processes and the organisation. New technology should continue supporting the current way of doing things as well as encourage new ways and methodologies (Norman 1993, Goguen 1999, Walker et al. 2009, Herrmann & Loser 1999).
Bottom-Up and Top-Down Approach
A thorough understanding is required of the relationship between the system as a whole and its parts, as well as the possible emergent properties, to ensure an effective and efficient design. Since multiple possibilities must be kept open during the design of the system to ensure flexibility, utilisation in different ways needs to be accommodated. When constraints and limitations are added to the system, its complexity will increase, and they should therefore be limited to the absolute minimum. Top-down processes alone for designing complex STSs will not suffice, as early design choices may have unintended consequences at lower levels. A bottom-up approach based on subsumption may limit this effect (Walker et al. 2009, Johnson 2006, Ryan 2007).
Complex systems and emergence should where possible be analysed through a top-down and bottom-up approach (De Wolf et al. 2006). In the top-down cycle, the high-level requirements can be analysed and delineated. The operational context and expected scenarios are defined from the initial high-level requirements to derive the required roles, tasks and functions of the system. These will provide the parameters for the simulation and synthesis during the bottom-up cycle (Oosthuizen et al. 2011).
Addressing Complexity in the System and Environment
From the law of requisite variety, designers should attempt fitting in with the external complexity by increasing internal complexity. However, the sociotechnical perspective proposes simplifying equipment complexity to enable humans in the STS to perform real-life and complex tasks (Walker et al. 2009). Therefore, complex STSs require subsumption and transparent, ubiquitous, open systems and flexible technology to enable self-synchronisation. The designer should recognise and differentiate elements that are volatile versus stable, then utilise the stable to anchor and guide the volatile. Domain knowledge is the source of stability and is captured in the models. Local actions that can influence the system on a global level are to be identified. Complexity should not be limited or ignored, but rather exploited to improve the adaptability of the solution.
Modelling Approaches
A design approach for complex STS has to consider the human, organisational and the technical aspects. The design method must develop an understanding of how these elements affect the work performed through modelling and analysis. Baxter & Sommerville (2011:4) proposed a list of possible STS design approaches:
a) Soft Systems Methodology. The soft systems methodology (SSM) from Checkland (1981) combines action research and systems engineering, but not the social sciences explicitly. The focus is on understanding the problem by considering roles, responsibilities and the concerns of stakeholders.
b) Cognitive Work Analysis. The CWA from Rasmussen (1994) and Vicente (1991) provides a formative approach for complex STSs to analyse the work performed.
c) Sociotechnical Method. The sociotechnical method (Waterson et al. 2002) focuses on function allocation to design work systems, and identifies the work distribution between humans and machines.
d) Ethnographic Analysis. An ethnographic analysis investigates the situated nature of the work. It identifies the workarounds taking place because of the physical environment.
e) Contextual Design. A contextual design incorporates the user’s requirements on how to perform work to design interfaces for the information system.
1 INTRODUCTION, PURPOSE AND EXPECTED CONTRIBUTION OF THIS STUDY
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Problem Statement
1.3 Research Objective
1.4 Research Questions
1.5 Research Contribution
1.6 Research Design
1.7 Thesis Layout
1.8 Thesis Constraints and Boundaries
1.9 Conclusion
2 RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Systems Engineering and Business Research
2.3 Design Science Research
2.4 Research Design
2.5 Research Methodology and Instruments
2.6 Ethical Procedures
2.7 Conclusion
3 COMPLEX SOCIOTECHNICAL SYSTEMS
3.1 Introduction
3.2 System Defined
3.3 Complexity
3.4 Sociotechnical Systems
3.5 Sociotechnical System Development
3.6 Complex Sociotechnical Systems
3.7 Conclusion
4 MODELLING METHODOLOGY DEVELOPMENT
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Systems Engineering
4.3 Modelling in System Engineering
4.4 Developing of a Modelling Methodology for Complex Sociotechnical Systems
4.5 Conclusion
5 DEMONSTRATING THE MODELLING METHODOLOGY FOR NEW TECHNOLOGY IN BORDER SAFEGUARDING COMMAND AND CONTROL
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Command and Control
5.3 Modelling of Command and Control for Border Safeguarding
5.4 Conclusion
6 DEMONSTRATION OF THE MODELLING METHODOLOGY FOR NEW TECHNOLOGY IN ANTI-POACHING OPERATIONS
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Case Study Context
6.3 Case Study Execution
6.4 Conclusion
7 DEMONSTRATING THE MODELLING METHODOLOGY FOR NEW TECHNOLOGY IN COMMUNITY POLICING FORUMS
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Community Policing and Neighbourhood Watch
7.3 Case Study Execution
7.4 Conclusion
8 METHODOLOGY EVALUATION
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Modelling Method Successes
8.3 Updates to the Modelling Methodology
8.4 Conclusion
9 CONCLUSIONS, RECOMMENDATIONS AND FUTURE WORK
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Research Questions
9.3 Resolution of Hypotheses
9.4 Contribution of this Research
9.5 Limitations of the Study
9.6 Future Work
9.7 Conclusion
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