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EARLIER ADVANCES OF CAREER DEVELOPMENT
I attempt to give the reader an understanding of career development by discussing the earlier advances of career development in education. I use terminology such as guidance and counselling, career guidance and counselling, vocational education and vocational guidance, and counselling or career interventions interchangeably. The reason I use these words interchangeably is because different terms have been used by practitioners over the years, as Niles and Harris-Bowlsbey (2002) reflect. However, there is need for career practitioners to position themselves in relation to the correct usage of the terms in the context of their use. The use of the term “career development” when describing factors, processes and interventions influencing the career behaviour of individuals is relatively recent (Herr, 2001). The term “career development” is, however, defined in the list of terminology for the reader to understand how the term is conceptualised in the current study. In addition, it should be noted that in the current study varied activities and processes are notable under career development. As long as these activities and processes enhance an individual career life in one way or the other it satisfies the definition of a career programme. Frank Parsons is often associated with the start of career development interventions in the 1900s in American education (Gibson & Mitchell, 1990; Niles & Harris-Bowlsbey, 2002; Savickas, 2011b). The time of Parsons was a time of transition of developed countries from the dark ages to the industrial times, where several innovations, such as mobile transport, electricity and career development, came into being (Zytowski, 2001). Schmidt (2008) emphasises the fact that the work of Parsons in the early 1900s is among the early works on vocational guidance. According to Savickas (2011b), since there were no structured guidance and counselling programmes in the early 1900s, Parsons offered to train teachers and personnel who dealt with employment issues in the Boston area. Parsons had organised the Boston Vocational Bureau in 1908 to provide a platform where young people could be assisted on vocational issues, as well as to capacitate teachers (Zytowski, 2008) to be vocational counsellors (Gibson & Mitchell, 1990; Savickas, 2011b). In the early 20th century, vocational guidance was used as a career approach after the publication of Parson’s book, Choosing a vocation, in 1909, which started off the counselling profession (Hartung, 2007; Hartung, 2010b). The idea was to make it possible for learners to make vocational choices that helped with their transition from school to the world of work.
Risks associated with loss of knowledge
There appears to be some environmental dynamism of change and challenge associated with career development, within which successful enterprises operate. This includes career progression, promotion, recruitment, resignation or retirement. It is important, however, that within this change and challenge, the vital knowledge base of a company or organisation is protected so that it can be passed on to personnel as it continues to change (McQuade et al., 2007). The authors state that, as much as this is true of a single firm, it is also true in a wider context, where the success of a competitive knowledge-based economy rests on having human capital with world-class knowledge and expertise. Thilmany (2008) further argues that one should not let a lot of information “walk out”, although, for a healthy employee life cycle and for an organisation to continually renew itself, people have to come and go. According to Maroba et al. (2006), the Annual Economic Report of 2000 reported that the government of Botswana realised, through the experiences of Asian countries, that the human resources of a nation can be its sole economic resource. In addition, the Republic of Botswana (2004) posits that countries need to ensure a well-developed human resource as it is its major resource. I posit that the government may have overlooked this aspect when dealing with its retiring skilled workforce. Hoffman and Hanes (2003) discuss an outstanding problem in knowledge management. They believe that knowledge and skills are now widely acknowledged as important assets. According to the Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary of Current English, an asset is a thing that is valuable or useful. Ebersöhn (2006) regards an asset as synonymous with a resource, which can be human, social or monetary, from which one can draw for success. However, an asset is described (Ebersöhn, 2006, p. 53) as “an assessable trait in a group of individuals or their situation that predicts a positive outcome in the future on a specific outcome or criterion”. The argument is that knowledge and skills are important in workplaces, both in industry and government, for effective performance.
CHAPTER 1: AN OVERVIEW
1.1 INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY
1.2 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY
1.3 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
1.4 RATIONALE FOR THE STUDY
1.5 RESEARCH QUESTIONS
1.6 THE CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK UNDERPINNING THIS STUDY
1.7 RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY
1.8 MY POSITION AS A RESEARCHER
1.9 KEY CONCEPTS
1.10 OUTLINE AND OVERVIEW OF THE CHAPTERS
1.11 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION OF THE CHAPTER
CHAPTER 2: EXPERIENCING THE LITERATURE
2.1 INTRODUCTION
2.2 EARLIER ADVANCES OF CAREER DEVELOPMENT
2.3 CURRENT TRENDS IN CAREER DEVELOPMENT
2.4 A VIEW OF CAREER DEVELOPMENT IN BOTSWANA
2.5 KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT FOR CAREER PROGRAMMES
2.6 RETIRED EDUCATORS ISSUES FOR RETIREMENT
2.7 THE TRI-KCC CONCEPTUAL MODEL OF CAREER DEVELOPMENT
2.8 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION OF THE CHAPTER
CHAPTER 3: RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY
3.1 INTRODUCTION
3.2 RESEARCH PARADIGM – PRAGMATISM
3.3 MIXED METHODS
3.4 PHASE 1: QUANTITATIVE STUDY
3.5 PHASE 2: QUALITATIVE STUDY
3.6 TRIANGULATION OF DATA SOURCES
3.7 ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS
3.8 ENSURING THE QUALITY OF THE STUDY
3.9 CHALLENGES
3.10 RESEARCHER PROXIMITY
3.11 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION OF THE CHAPTER
CHAPTER 4: RESULTS OF QUANTITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS
4.1 INTRODUCTION
4.2 PRESENTATION OF THE PILOT DATA
4.3 PRESENTATION OF THE MAIN SURVEY QUESTIONNAIRE DATA
4.4 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION OF THE CHAPTER
CHAPTER 5: RESULTS RELATED TO QUALITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS
5.1 INTRODUCTION
5.2 PRESENTING THE FINDINGS
5.3 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION OF THE CHAPTER
CHAPTER 6: DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS
6.1 INTRODUCTION
6.2 MEANINGFUL EXPERIENCES FOR RETIRED EDUCATORS
6.3 EDUCATORS WHO HAVE EXPERIENCED INSPIRATIONAL LEADERS
6.4 RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FUTURE EDUCATION PROGRAMMES
6.5 RETIRED EDUCATORS’ RETIREMENT ISSUES
6.6 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION OF THE CHAPTER
CHAPTER 7: CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
7.1 INTRODUCTION
7.2 OVERVIEW OF THE CHAPTERS
7.3 SUMMARY OF THE STUDY
7.4 FINDINGS ACCORDING TO THE RESEARCH QUESTIONS
7.5 THE PRIMARY RESEARCH QUESTION: HOW CAN THE EXPERIENTIAL KNOWLEDGE AND SKILLS OF THE RETIRED EDUCATORS BE USED TO INFORM CAREER DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMMES?
7.6 REFLECTION AND DISCUSSION OF CERTAIN ASPECTS OF THE STUDY
7.7 RECOMMENDATIONS
7.8 CLOSING REFLECTIONS
