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CHILD-CENTRED VERSUS TEACHER-DIRECTED LEARNING
There continues to be a debate as to whether teacher-directed or child-centred might be appropriate for effective learning and holistic development in kindergarteners (Stipek et al., 1995:209). Although early educators might use both approaches, there seems to be a strong recommendation for child-centred approaches to child development that might be holistic. Child-centred approaches developed from theoretical and empirical research on constructivist learning, while teacher-directed approaches align with behaviourist approaches. A blend of both approaches might involve understanding the nature of the child from within many theoretical paradigms, such as constructivist, behaviourist, maturational and social-cultural, to synthesize “genetic potential, past development, and current environmental circumstance” to explain development (Sroufe, Cooper & DeHart, 1996:8).
Sugrue (1997:6) consolidates definitions used for child-centred approaches, also known as ‘progressive’ teaching, to offer a wide-ranging terminology. These includes ‘developmental’, ‘craftsman teaching’, ‘informal teaching’ and ‘process teaching’, to distinguish child-centred approaches. DAP or child-centred approaches recognize the need for children to engage actively with their learning environment so that they develop cognitive, social, emotional and physical functioning (Burke & Burke, 2005:282; Cassidy, 2005:144; Geist & Baum, 2005:28; Goldstein, 2007b:378; Klein & Chen, 2001:31; Kostelnik et al., 2004:18; Neuman & Roskos, 2005:25; Rushton & Larkin, 2001:26-8; Stipek, 2007). Therefore, as a guide for appropriate practices that develop the whole child, DAP embraces many principles of a child-centred approach to learning (Stipek, 1993:30).
A DAP principles approach considers age appropriateness, individual appropriateness, and cultural appropriateness in the way children learn (Bredekamp & Copple, 1997; Charlesworth, Hart, Burts & DeWolf, 1993:12-3; Charlesworth, 1998; Ludlow & Berkeley in Jalongo et al., 2004:144; Kostelnik et al., 2004:16-7; Philips, in Klein & Chen, 2001:31; NAEYC, 1997; 2009). In contrast, teacher-directed approaches, also sometimes called DIP, are usually associated with ‘traditional teaching’ (Parker & Neuharth-Pritchett, 2006). These are also referred to as ‘didactism’, ‘transmission’, ‘telling’, ‘teacher-centred’, ‘rigid’, ‘uniform’, ‘narrow’ and ‘content-driven’ (Bullough, Samuelowicz & Bain, in Sugrue, 1997:5). Skills teaching appear to support the acquisition of certain abilities, such as letter recognition and reading achievement, besides giving a possible head start to children from low-income backgrounds (Adams & Engelmann; Engelmann both in Stipek, 2004:551; Stipek et al., 1995; Stipek, in Neuharth-Pritchett, 2006).
DEMAND FOR ACADEMIC SKILLS COMPETENCE
Many nations now demand accountability in early childhood, especially as an equity strategy that brings all children with diverse social backgrounds on a par with each other (Republic of Kenya, 2006b; Republic of Kenya, 2005; NAEYC, 1997; 2009). This demand appears to be motivated by a ‘head start’ philosophy or the ‘early advantage theory’ (Mwaura et al., 2008:238; Robinson & Diaz, 2008:51). Although the movement head start originated in the USA, with NCLB policy7 (NAEYC, 2009:3), many states of the world appear to have embraced this push for an early start to academic excellence. Miller (2005) cites the example of England, Cassidy (2005) cites the Scottish example, Jambunathan and Caulfield (2006) that of India. Biersteker et al. cite the example of Kenya, Wang et al. (2008) give examples from China, Yoo (2005) gives examples from Korea, and Barblett (2003) cites the Australian case. As already noted, the demand for academic skill competence for children has implication for the teaching approach that teachers use. The concern for accountability measures invariably affects how and what teachers plan as children’s educational experiences (DiBello & Neuharth-Pritchett, 2008). As mentioned above, the push for academic skills that might require teacher-directed approaches, appears to contradict the principles of DAP (Goldstein, 2007a:41; Maccoby & Lewis, 2003:1074; McMullen, 1999; Miller, 2005:257; Miller & Smith, 2004:123; Miller, 2005:258; Morrison, 2006:223, 251; Neumann, 2005:191; Palmer, 2005:26; Parker & Neuharth-Pritchett, 2006; Stipek et al., 1995:209; Warner & Sower, 2005:242). DAP incorporates many dimensions of the child-centered approach (Henson, 2003:6; Stipek, 1993:32; Sugrue, 1997:6-8).
As a result, children in teacher-directed classes in contrast with those in child-centred preschools have limited opportunities to construct their own learning (Bredekamp & Copple, 1997; Kostelnik, 2004; Montessori, 1920; Stipek, 2007; 1993:30; Vygotsky, 1978). In addition, they might not develop higher order thinking (Stipek, 1993; Stipek et al., 1995; Stipek, 2007), have less motivation to learn (Katz, in Stipek, 1993), or may develop dependency on adult authority (Elkind, in Stipek, 1993). They might also experience social and emotional problems because they get limited opportunities to interact with peers as requisite to their social and emotional skills development (Charlesworth et al., 1993; Stipek et al., 1995). In view of Montessori’s (1920:14-5) caution, teacher-directed approaches that inhibit the child’s freedom of movement are analogous to ‘butterflies pinned to the desk’, rendering their wings useless. Burke and Burke (2005:282) conclude that an academic focus on children “short-changes other aspects of development”.
THE 18TH AND 19TH CENTURY PERCEPTION OF CHILDREN AND CHILDHOOD
During the 18th century, childcare served to purify the child’s inherent evil nature (Gordon & Browne, 2000:10; Smidt, 2006:5; Pollock, in Trawick-Smith, 2003:17; Weber, in Monighan-Nourot, 2005:3). During this period, a puritan ethos in the church dominated the psyche of society (Gordon & Browne, 2000:10), and a belief that children inherited the essentially evil nature of man at birth. Therefore, education began at the age of 7 years, when society considered the child as a miniature adult (Braun & Edwards, 1972:7; Henson, 2003:7). The ‘dame schools’ in America then became contexts for moral and spiritual cleansing, aimed at ridding children of that inherent evil (Weber, in Monighan-Naurot, 2005:3), often by “beating the devil out of them” (Pollock, in Trawick-Smith, 2003:17). To counter what was termed by some ‘original sin’, after Eve and Adam’s transgressions in the Biblical Garden of Eden, the children were made to sit up straight while memorising and reciting verses. This was a particularly valued activity, since writing and reading materials were also scarce. Consequently, learning was limited to memorization and recitation of the Psalms and alphabetical symbols (MonighanNourot, 2005:3-4). Heavy discipline, which included corporal punishment, sitting on ‘the shame bench’ and the wearing of a dunce’s cap predominated (Gutek, in MonighanNourot, 2005:3).
This became ‘the dark age’ for children who society considered as non-persons, lacking identity, care and appreciation (Braun & Edwards, 1972:3; Gordon & Browne, 2000:10; Aries; Bjorklund & Bjorklund both in Trawick-Smith, 2003:17). Classical European education was a preserve of the upper-classes, and then it was mainly for boys (Braun & Edwards, 1972:24; Monighan-Nourot, 2005:4; Gordon & Browne, 2000:9). If girls were educated it was often merely training in domestic work or trade, and then for the middleclass only (Gordon & Browne, 2000:9). However, the value of children changed in the 19th century, as a period of ‘enlightenment’ for parents and society emerged (Trawick-Smith, 2003:17; Smidt, 2006:3). In contrast to the view of an ‘evil child’, Rousseau’s competing idea of a ‘naturally good’ child, expressed in his book ‘Emile’ (1762), advanced childhood as a unique period that parents and teachers should respect (Smidt, 2006:5; Trawick-Smith, 2003:17; Warner & Sower, 2005:4). Universal education and literacy for all replaced the ideas of an inherently evil child, and there was a reaction to gender, class, and racial bias in schools, which now taught reading, writing, arithmetic and bookkeeping (Gordon & Browne, 2000:10). Emerging during this time was a more considerate and encompassing attitude to the social training of children (DeMause, in Trawick-Smith, 2003:17). Children growing up during this period received physical, emotional, social and intellectual care (Trawick-Smith, 2003:17). At the same time, there began an integrated curriculum for early childhood education. Therefore, some of the basic principles advanced to guide early childhood, such as the ‘whole child’ philosophy, can be said to have had their origins in the 19th century thinking. In the following section I preview the progenitors of some of the ideas that prevail in ECE today. Several people advanced many ideas that guide it, including John Amos Comenius (a Czech educator, 1592-1670), John Locke (1632-1714), Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778), and Johann Heinrich Pestallozi (1746-1827) (Morrison, 2006:95-121).
VOYAGE ONE: A PROPOSAL FOR AN ACADEMIC EXPLORATION
1.1 INTRODUCTION
1.2 THE RATIONALE OF THE STUDY
1.3 A GENERAL BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY
1.4 THE PURPOSE OF THE RESEARCH
1.5 METHODOLOGY AND DATA ANALYSIS OVERVIEW
1.6 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY
1.7 EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION IN KENYA
1.8 THE CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK OF THE STUDY
1.9 THE BIOECOLOGICAL SYSTEMS THEORY
1.10 CONCEPTUALIZED TERMINOLOGY
1.11 DEFINITION OF TERMS
1.12 ASSUMPTIONS OF THE STUDY
1.13 THE OUTLINE OF THE ENTIRE VOYAGE
VOYAGE TWO: LINKING WITH OTHER VOYAGERS
2.1 A GENERAL INTRODUCTION
2.2 THE HISTORY OF EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION
2.3 THREE VIEWS OF CHILDREN’S READINESS
2.4 ORIGINS AND RATIONALE OF DAP
2.5 THE DEMAND FOR EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION
2.6 PRESCHOOL EDUCATION PROVISION IN KENYA
2.7 STUDIES ON PRESCHOOL INTERACTIONS, TEACHERS’ BELIEFS AND DAP
2.8 FINDING MY WAY FROM PREVIOUS STUDIES
2.9 A SUMMARY OF THE LITERATURE FOCUS
VOYAGE THREE: A PARADIGM SEARCH AND METHODOLOGY
3.1 INTRODUCTION
3.2 THE PARADIGM JOURNEY SEARCH
3.3 THE METHODOLOGY
3.4 DATA GENERATING STRATEGIES
3.5 ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS
3.6 LIMITATIONS OF THE CURRENT STUDY
3.7 SUMMARY OF RESEARCH DESIGN
VOYAGE FOUR: DATA ANALYSIS AND PRESENTATION STRUCTURE
4.1 AN OVERVIEW OF VOYAGE NUMBER FOUR
4.2 DATA PROCESSING AND STORAGE
4.3 THE DATA ANALYSIS PROCESS
4.4 DATA PRESENTATION FRAMEWORK
4.5 CONCLUSION O N DATA ANALYSIS AND PRESENTATION FRAMEWORK
4.6 QUALITY ASSURANCE CONSIDERATIONS
VOYAGE FIVE: DATA ON CHILDREN’S EDUCATIONAL EXPERIENCES
5.1 THE RESEARCH QUESTIONS RE-STATED
5.2 A GENERAL INTRODUCTION AND MIND-MAPPING
5.3 THEME 1: TEACHING STRATEGY
5.4 THEME 2: THE ‘SILENCING’/ USE OF LEARNING MATERIALS
5.5 THEME 3: SCHEDULING OF CHILDREN’S ACTIVITIES
5.6 THEME 4: APPROACH TO CHILDREN’S ASSESSMENT
5.7 THEME 5: CHILDREN’S INDIVIDUALITY
VOYAGE SIX: FACTORS INFLUENCING TEACHERS’ BELIEFS
6.1 A GENERAL INTRODUCTION
6.2 RESPONDING TO PARENT’S EXPECTATIONS
6.3 PREPARATION FOR THE INTERVIEW
6.4 DIFFERENT TRANSITION CURRICULA/ REQUIREMENTS
6.5 COMPETITIVE SCHOOL ENVIRONMENT
6.6 PEER INFLUENCE TO DIVERSIFY APPROACH
6.7 PERCEIVED LACK OF TIME
6.8 CONCLUSION: FACTORS INFLUENCING TEACHERS’ BELIEFS ABOUT DAEP
VOYAGE SEVEN: PUTTING THE PUZZLE PIECES OF THE JOURNEY TOGETHER
7.1 INTRODUCTION
7.2 THE DAP FRAMEWORK
7.3 GOING DEDUCTIVE- THEMES INSIDE THE BIOECOLOGICAL
7.4 ADVANCING A SEESAW MODEL OF DAEP
VOYAGE EIGHT: THE SUNSET OF ALL THE VOYAGES
8.1 OVERVIEW
8.2 THE PURPOSE OF THE STUDY RESTATED
8.3 RESEARCH QUESTIONS RE-STATED
8.4 OVERVIEW OF RESULTS
8.5 CONCLUDING REMARKS
8.6 RECOMMENDATIONS FOR PRESCHOOL EDUCATION IN KENYA
8.7 RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH
8.8 CONTRIBUTIONS OF THE CURRENT RESEARCH
8.10 CONCLUSION TO THE STUDY
