Geographical and social context of marginalised communities

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Chapter 3 Literature review on learner support in ODL

Introduction

In Chapter 2, I provided contextual background for understanding the distance learners from marginalised communities in Botswana who participated in this study. In this chapter, I review literature related to the theoretical frameworks in distance learning and learning support as a subset of learner support. The purpose of the review was to understand the conceptual and theoretical perspectives that underpin learning support in order to situate this study, interpret the perspectives and experiences of participants of this study, and build on existing research in the domain of DE.
Learner support appears to be of lesser concern in some distance learning institutions as planning strategies for learner support do not exist, (Levy and Bealie, 2003, Robinson, 2004). An absence of such plans could imply that issues related to learner support, including perceptions and experiences of learners from marginalised communities in underdeveloped contexts, may not be known. This could be due to several constraints, such as financial cost, inadequacy of appropriate human resources for learner support or, alternatively, the role of learning support may not be considered a matter that deserves attention. Empirical literature on learner support for distance learners from marginalised communities, similar to those described in the previous chapter, has been difficult to locate. This is not surprising as such disadvantaged groups generally have no advocacy and thus mainstream society commands more attention. However, literature describing learner support as provided in developed contexts is prolific and differs from what happens in developing contexts. In the latter case, available literature comprises progress reports on what various institutions are doing (Robinson, 2004, Nonyongo and Ngengebule, 2008). For instance, Nonyongo and Ngengebule casebook (2008) on learner support in Distance Education Association of Southern Africa (DEASA) institutions is primarily a collection of progress reports produced by ODL practitioners. None offer evidence of any empirical study on the perceptions and experiences of learning support for distance learners from marginalised communities in underdeveloped contexts.
I first discuss the provision of education to marginalised communities as well as the concept of open and distance learning. I then briefly examine three applicable theoretical frameworks and the literature on learner support to establish a conceptual framework for this study. I next proceed to discuss the empirical literature on learning support experiences in both developed and developing contexts and indicate what exists and what gaps my study addresses. Inter alia, my study contributes to the literature by giving a voice to adults enrolled for a secondary school certificate in isolated disadvantaged circumstances.

The provision of education to marginalised communities

Education is a basic human right (Curtis, 2009). All people including those from marginalised communities should share this. However, in practice, the right to education is not enjoyed equally by all. Marginalised groups in various regions of the world suffer disproportionately from unequal or restricted access to quality education and inappropriate education strategies (United Nations Human Rights Council, 2009). Observations by Bourne (2003) COL & COMSEC (2007) COMSEC (2009) is that education provision for marginalised communities in Africa and elsewhere does not adequately reach marginalised communities nor adequately address their needs and aspirations. In other words, adequate education provision has failed to reach nomadic populations and marginalised indigenous communities. In India, the enrolment rate for Scheduled Tribal children in 1997-8 was only 66% nationally, in Namibia – in the 1990s – the scholastic enrolment of the Basarwa was only 21% compared to a national average of 83%, in Australia in 1999, nearly half of all indigenous people aged 15 or over had had no formal education and only 5.5% were participating in years 11 and 12 at the top of the secondary school (Bourne, 2003).
The United Nations Economic and Social Council (1999) and Human Rights Council (2009) make it clear that education is an inalienable human right and is more that a commodity or a service. It is regarded as crucial for the realisation of other rights and an indispensable agency for the expansion of human capabilities and the enhancement of human dignity. Education is further regarded as critical as it plays a role in socialization for democratic citizenship and represents an essential support for community identity. It is also viewed as a means by which individuals and communities can lift themselves out of poverty and is also a means of helping minorities overcome the legacies of historical injustice or discrimination committed against them, (United Nations Human Rights Council, 2009). It is therefore critically important that people from marginalised communities should have the right to a fully-fledged education, given that the lack of or limited education impinges on civil and political rights, as well as the rights to freedom of movement and expression. Lack of education also limits participation in public affairs, e.g. voting rights and limits the access and enjoyment of rights to employment, health, housing and an adequate standard of living. Lack of education can also result in reticence to engage with law enforcement authorities inhibiting access to remedies when human rights are violated. Lack of or poor quality of education is a barrier, in particular, for marginalised people’s progress and empowerment (United Nations Human Rights Council, 2009).
The United Nations Human Rights Council (2009) further advocates for education to serve the dual function of supporting the efforts of communities to self-development in economic, social and cultural terms while opening pathways by which they can function in the wider society and promote social harmony. This therefore calls for education strategies that enhance rights and freedoms. Human rights are violated when, for instance, unwanted assimilation is imposed through the medium of education or enforced social segregation is generated through educational processes. (United Nations Human Rights Council, 2009). In the light of the rights and obligations recognised at the level of the United Nations, the right to secondary education of people from marginalised communities satisfies Article 13 (2) (b) of the Economic, Social and Cultural Rights . The said Article recognises that secondary education demands flexible curricula and varied delivery systems to respond to the needs of learners in different social and cultural settings. The United Nations Economic and Social Committee encourages alternative educational programmes which parallel regular secondary school systems (United Nations Economic and Social Council, 1999). This is again echoed by the COL and COMSEC Report (2007) that calls for inclusive education, suggesting that deliberate and positive action should be made to ensure the realization of access for all kinds and conditions of learners including those from the Basarwa and Bakgalagadi communities in Botswana.
of poverty and is also a means of helping minorities overcome the legacies of historical injustice or discrimination committed against them, (United Nations Human Rights Council, 2009). It is therefore critically important that people from marginalised communities should have the right to a fully-fledged education, given that the lack of or limited education impinges on civil and political rights, as well as the rights to freedom of movement and expression. Lack of education also limits participation in public affairs, e.g. voting rights and limits the access and enjoyment of rights to employment, health, housing and an adequate standard of living. Lack of education can also result in reticence to engage with law enforcement authorities inhibiting access to remedies when human rights are violated. Lack of or poor quality of education is a barrier, in particular, for marginalised people’s progress and empowerment (United Nations Human Rights Council, 2009).
The United Nations Human Rights Council (2009) further advocates for education to serve the dual function of supporting the efforts of communities to self-development in economic, social and cultural terms while opening pathways by which they can function in the wider society and promote social harmony. This therefore calls for education strategies that enhance rights and freedoms. Human rights are violated when, for instance, unwanted assimilation is imposed through the medium of education or enforced social segregation is generated through educational processes. (United Nations Human Rights Council, 2009). In the light of the rights and obligations recognised at the level of the United Nations, the right to secondary education of people from marginalised communities satisfies Article 13 (2) (b) of the Economic, Social and Cultural Rights . The said Article recognises that secondary education demands flexible curricula and varied delivery systems to respond to the needs of learners in different social and cultural settings. The United Nations Economic and Social Committee encourages alternative educational programmes which parallel regular secondary school systems (United Nations Economic and Social Council, 1999). This is again echoed by the COL and COMSEC Report (2007) that calls for inclusive education, suggesting that deliberate and positive action should be made to ensure the realization of access for all kinds and conditions of learners including those from the Basarwa and Bakgalagadi communities in Botswana.  marginalised communities. Open and distance learning (ODL) is one flexible and innovative approach that is capable of reaching and addressing the needs and aspirations of marginalised communities.

Open and distance learning (ODL)

Providing education to marginalised and at times nomadic communities in underdeveloped contexts is one of the most challenging and urgent issues facing education policy makers, practitioners and other role players within the field (COMSEC, 2006). The use of open and distance learning (ODL) methods to address the challenges in many countries including Botswana is now common. ODL has proved to be capable of reaching large numbers of people in developing countries (Hulsmann, 2004, Siaciwena Lubinda, 2008)). The term open and distance learning (ODL) in the education field, has gained prominence in the past 20 years (COL, 2000).
Open learning is a system in which the restrictions placed on learners are under constant review and removed wherever possible. As a system, it entails policies that permit entry to learning with no or minimum barriers with respect to age, gender, or time constraints and with recognition of prior learning (COL, 2000). Open learning enables learners to learn at the time, place and pace which satisfy their circumstances and requirements. Open learning emphasises the opening up of opportunities by overcoming barriers that result from age, gender, geographical isolation, previous experience requirements, personal or work commitments or conventional course structures which have often prevented people from gaining access to training or schooling (Rowntree, 1992). In other words it provides learners with choices about e.g. the medium of knowledge transmission (print, on-line, television or video) or the choice of place to study (at home, workplace or on campus). It also allows learners to have a choice to pace their study and choose when to complete their courses. It allows for support by tutors, audio conferences or computer-assisted learning and also for entry and exit from the course when the learner so desires. The type of open and distance learning that is technology-based refers to systems of teaching and learning in which a technology other than print plays a major role (COL, 2000). This is the case at the University of West Indies where audio conferencing is used to link various campuses and learning centres. It is also the case at Athabasca University and at the Open University of the United Kingdom where computer conferencing is used as a primary mode of delivery (COL, 2000). Various forms of tele-teaching via statelitte television have also been used successfully, specifically as an academic support for secondary school learners in developing countries such as Brazil, India, Mexico and South Africa (Evans, 2005, Edrishinga, 1999, Shrestha 1997) ODL is a blanket term used for learning systems that offer varying mixes of openness and distance (DFID, 2008). Its key features include: separation of teacher and learner in time or place or in both time and place; use of mixed-media courseware that is print, radio and television broadcasts, video and audio cassettes, computer-based learning and telecommunications (Valentine, 2002; COL, 2000; DFID, 2008). ODL also includes a two way communication which allows learners and tutors to interact and the possibility of face-to-face meetings for tutorials. The language and terms used to describe ODL activities makes it difficult to have one definition (COL, 2000). The commonly used terms related to open and distance learning include correspondence education, distance learning, open learning, technology-based education and flexible learning amongst others.
Correspondence is print-based with communication through postal services or telephone. Learners pursuing correspondence education do not have to leave their homes to study. In North America many university correspondence programmes have been renamed open and distance learning programmes in the last 15 years, (COL, 2000). Distance learning on the other hand occurs when a learner learns at a distance from a teacher using pre-recorded, packaged learning materials. The learner is separated from the teacher in time and space but is still being guided by the teacher, (Rowntree, 1992; COL, 2000).
Despite the different types of open and distance learning, the delivery of ODL programmes occurs along two continua, that is, the continuum of time and the continuum of space, (COL, 2000) as illustrated in Table 3.1.

DEDICATION 
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 
LIST OF TABLES 
LIST OF FIGURES 
LIST OF ACRONYMS 
ADDENDA 
DECLARATION OF AUTHORSHIP AND COPYRIGHT WAIVER 
ABSTRACT 
Chapter 1 Overview of the study
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Brief contextualisation of the study
1.3 Rationale
1.4 Explanation of key terms
1.5 Scope of the study
1.6 Research design and methodology
1.7 Anticipated research constraints
1.8 Outline of study
1.9 Conclusion
Chapter 2: Marginalised Basarwa and Bakgalagadi communities in context
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Geographical and social context of marginalised communities
2.3 Marginalisation of the Basarwa and Bakgalagadi communities
2.4 Conclusion
Chapter 3: Literature review
3.1 Introduction
3.2 The provision of education to marginalised communities
3.3 Open and distance learning (ODL)
3.4 Theoretical frameworks underpinning distance learning
3.5 Learner support and learning support in distance learning
3.6 Factors that influence perceptions and experiences in distance learning
3.7 Learning support experiences in developed and developing contexts
3.8 The nature of learning support at Botswana College of Distance and Open Learning (BOCODOL)
3.9 Conclusion
Chapter 4: Research design and methodology
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Research paradigms
4.3 Research process
4.4 Data collection strategies
4.5 Data analysis
4.6 Trustworthiness
4.7 Conclusion
Chapter 5: Presentation of data and analysis
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Learners’ perceptions and experiences of learning support
5.3 Discussion of findings
5.4 Summary: main findings
5.5 Conclusion
Chapter 6: Significance and implications of study
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Overview of study
6.3 Significance of study
6.4 Implications for policy and practice
6.5 Recommendations for further research
6.6 Conclusion
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