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Chapter Two The Complexity of Human Trafficking for the Purpose of Sexual Exploitation
Introduction
In this chapter, the researcher will investigate the complexity of human trafficking for the purpose of sexual exploitation. The researcher will, therefore, examine certain subproblems in relation to the research question. In this chapter, the researcher will then investigate the research question and research problems as set out in 1.4 and 1.4.1. These problems include examining the complex nature of sex trafficking through existing research from which a theological theory can be created; examining the impact of sex trafficking on victims, survivors and perpetrators; establishing the needs of trafficking victims, survivors and perpetrators; and at points investigating whether the ecumenical churches’ involvement in sex trafficking is at all beneficial to those involved. According to Shelley (2010:37), numerous root causes of this illicit trade have been identified, yet it remains difficult to explain the phenomenal growth of human trafficking since the 1980s. It is, therefore, necessary for the researcher to investigate this phenomenon and all its complexity in order to gain a better understanding of sex trafficking as it is today. This will ultimately assist in formulating a theological foundation for the ecumenical church’s possible involvement in addressing the complex issue of human trafficking for the sex work industry, based on social ethics
and missional theology.
The Extent of the Problem
It remains difficult to estimate the exact extent of human trafficking given the lack of sound and accurate data collection methods (UNODC 2016:47), yet the last decade has been marked by a significant increase in human trafficking cases.According to UNODC (2016:1), the main contributor is the intensifying development of the movement of refugees and migrants, as the movement of people has become a gateway for traffickers and smugglers whereby vulnerable groups such as children are easily exploited. Human trafficking has therefore enjoyed accelerated growth and at the same time climbed up the global agenda, and remains a global challenge. It is of utmost importance to understand its texture and shape, even though findings might be disturbing. One of these disturbing facts is that between the years 2012-2014, more than 500 different trafficking flows or trafficking routes were detected around the globe, with victims from 137 different countries (UNODC 2016:1). South Africa is currently ranked 27th out of 167 countries for the prevalence of human trafficking, with an estimated 0.453% caught in some form of human trafficking (Global Slavery Index 2016). These numbers only account for detected victims, not taking hiddenness and other factors into account, especially in the case of human trafficking for the purpose of sexual exploitation, and it happens almost everywhere (UNODC 2016:1). According to the researcher, it then becomes imperative to formulate a theological response in light of the growing issue.
As sexual exploitation remains one of the two most prominent forms of human trafficking, the other being forced labour (UNODC 2016:1), a problem remains in estimating the exact extent of the problem as accurate statistics on the magnitude thereof are elusive and sometimes unreliable. The hidden nature of this problem and its economies make it difficult to obtain accurate statistics on the number of sex trafficked victims (Aronowitz 2009:15). This problem is compounded by inadequate monitoring by law enforcement agencies, public confusion about the nature of sex trafficking (International Human Rights Law Institute 2002:6), and lack of-or the inadequate implementation of trafficking legislation (Okojie et al. 2003). According to Kara (2009:3), most of the reasons for the increase in human trafficking are focused around the themes of the misunderstanding of human trafficking, a lack of funding and coordination, poor law enforcement and difficulty collecting data and being able to identify strategic points of intervention. The number of countries that have criminalised most forms of trafficking as set out in the United Trafficking in Persons Protocol has increased from 33 in 2003 to 158 in 2016, yet the average number of convictions remains low. As judicial resources are not always available to assist the victims and prosecute the traffickers, it is difficult to detect, investigate and successfully prosecute cases of trafficking in persons (UNODC 2016:1). According to Aronowitz (2009:16), another compounding factor in obtaining reliable statistics is the fact that victims rarely report any wrongdoing and are often unwilling to cooperate with law enforcement officials if identified and rescued. Aronowitz states that the main reasons thereof is the fear of reprisal from traffickers, lack of trust in authorities, rejection by families and the lack of opportunities in their country of origin.
Victims may not even see themselves as being exploited, especially if they are in love with their trafficker or pimp (Bureau National Rapporteur Mensehandel 2003). This fact contributes toward a situation where nongovernmental organisations, international agencies and governments provide different kinds of data, most of which are often not comparable (Aronowitz 2009:16). Significant discrepancies exist between the number of actual victims identified and estimates projected by government agencies (Makkai 2003). It is, for example, a common practice for countries to combine statistics on illegal migration, smuggling,
migrant sex workers and trafficking, resulting in overestimations (Aronowitz 2009:19). At the same time, it is however also common to understate the problem. According to Aronowitz (2009:20) statistics could provide an accurate picture of the number of victims assisted by an organisation, but that those statistics reflect only the tip of the iceberg as organisations often only report those who seek help and thus underrepresent the true nature of the problem.
CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION AND HYPOTHESIS.
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Background
1.3 Literature Review
1.4 Research Problem
1.4.1 Subproblems
1.4.2 Hypothesis
1.5 Research Methodology
1.5.1 Introduction to the Transformative Paradigm
1.5.2 A Missional Transformative Paradigm
1.5.3 Mixed Methods Approach
1.5.4 Methodological Assumptions
1.5.5 Reciprocity and Validity
1.5.6 Ethical Considerations
1.6 Content Structure
CHAPTER TWO THE COMPLEXITY OF HUMAN TRAFFICKING FOR THE PURPOSE OF SEXUAL EXPLOITATION
2.1 Introduction
2.2 The Extent of the Problem
2.3 Perspectives on Human Trafficking for the Purpose of Sexual Exploitation
2.4 The Trafficking Process
2.5 Other Causes of Human Trafficking for the Purpose of Sexual Exploitation
2.6 Latest Trends in Human Trafficking for the Purpose of Sexual Exploitation
2.7 Fuelling the Problem of Sex Trafficking
2.8 Consequences of Sex Trafficking
2.9 A Religious Response to Health Issues
2.10 The Trafficker or Offender
2.11 The Trafficked Person/Victim
2.12 Human Trafficking Indicators for the Purpose of Sexual Exploitation
2.13 Socialisation and Assistance
2.14 Health Issues and Its Links
2.15 Quadruple Victimisation
2.16 Conclusion
CHAPTER THREE A THEOLOGICAL REFLECTION ON HUMAN TRAFFICKING FOR THE PURPOSE OF SEXUAL EXPLOITATION
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Theological Reflection
3.3 Demarcation of Appropriate Passages
3.4 Foundational Ideas
3.5 The Old Testament and Sex Trafficking
3.6 Conclusion on the Old Testament and Sex Trafficking
3.7 The New Testament and Sex Trafficking
3.8 Conclusion on the New Testament and Sex Trafficking
3.9 Summary and Conclusion
CHAPTER FOUR EMPIRICAL RESEARCH
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Goal of the Empirical Research
4.3 Methodological Responsibility.
4.4 Choice of Respondents and Sampling Size
4.5 Data Analysis
4.6 Category of Respondents: Sex Trafficking Victims
4.7 Summary and Conclusion to Category of Respondents: Sex Trafficking Victims
4.8 Category of Respondents: Expert
4.9 Summary and Conclusion to Category of Respondents: Experts
4.10 Category of Respondents: Missional Workers and Church Leaders
4.11 Summary and Conclusion to Category: Missional Workers and Church Leaders
4.12 Survey
4.13 Consolidation of Data, Analysis of Data, and Final Conclusion
CHAPTER FIVE A MISSIONAL APPROPRIATION OF HUMAN TRAFFICKING FOR THE SEX WORK INDUSTRY
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Protecting Basic Rights in Addressing the Problem
5.3 A Missional Appropriation
5.4 Toward a Glocal Theory and Strategy for the Ecumenical Church
5.5 Conclusion
CHAPTER SIX GUIDELINES FOR A MISSIONAL APPROACH TO SEX TRAFFICKING ANDn SUGGESTED AREAS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Guidelines Regarding a Theological Reflection
6.3 Guidelines in Regard to a Missional Approach
6.4 Conclusion
6.5 Areas for Further Research
BIBLIOGRAPHY
ADDENDUM A
ADDENDUM B
QUESTIONS FOR STRUCTURED AND UNSTRUCTURED INTERVIEWS
A MISSIONAL APPROPRIATION OF HUMAN TRAFFICKING FOR THE SEX
WORK INDUSTRY
ADDENDUM C
GUIDING QUESTIONS FOR VICTIMS OF SEX TRAFFICKING
ADDENDUM D
GUIDING QUESTIONS FOR EXPERTS CURRENTLY OR PREVIOUSLY
INVOLVED IN THE ISSUE OF SEX TRAFFICKING
ADDENDUM E
INFORMED CONSENT.
GET THE COMPLETE PROJECT
A MISSIONAL APPROPRIATION OF HUMAN TRAFFICKING FOR THE SEXWORK INDUSTRY
