INFANCY: DEVELOPMENTAL TASKS AND STAGES, FORMS OF PLAY AND TECHNIQUES

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RESEARCH APPROACH

A combination of qualitative and quantitative research methods was used in this study. When qualitative and quantitative methods of data collection are mixed, we term the process triangulation (De Vos, 1998:359). Cresswell (1994:173-190) presents three models to design a study that combines the qualitative and quantitative paradigms in a single project. The three models are the two-phase model, the dominant-less-dominant model, and the mixed methodology design model. For the purposes of this study the researcher used the two-phase model. Cresswell (1994:173-190) describes the two-phase model in which the researcher proposed to conduct a qualitative phase of the study and a separate quantitative phase. The advantage of this approach is that the two paradigms are clearly separate; it also enables a researcher to thoroughly present the paradigm assumptions behind each phase. The first phase in this study existed of doing a need assessment with the mothers of infants and a need assessment with caregivers. During this phase, the qualitative approach was the best to gain the most and richest data. During the second phase of the research the quantitative approach was used to measure the impact of the training programme on the caregivers.

Identifying and involving clients

The intervention researcher chooses a population with whom to collaborate. A population is selected whose issues are of current interest. The problem that was analyzed in this study was the need of a caregiver to care for an infant at the infant’s home so that the infant’s mother could return to work. The existence of such a problematic human condition is often not recognized by the public or by professionals. The objective of the analysis phase is to bring about such recognition. Researchers who address the problem of important constituencies will receive more support from the target population, the professional community, and the general public (Rothman & Thomas, 1994:29-30). The researcher identified the target population as working mothers with infants, and as caregivers who are working for more than six months in San Bernardino County, California.

Interaction with peers

As the infant grows, the boundaries of his social world expand. When he gets into contact with other children of his age, it will enable him to interact with a new source of social stimulation. Interaction between infants of six months is very simple, in the sense that they primarily smile, touch, or make noises at each other. This is the beginning of peer interaction, which is an important component of social development (Vandell, Wilson & Buchanan, 1980:481-488). Infants between the age of ten months and twelve months cry when they hear other children cry. At thirteen months, the infant will cuddle and comfort a crying child. By eighteen months the infant will help the child by, for example, trying to fix a toy and giving a bandage for a cut (Louw, 1992:236).

Developing the self and self-confidence

If the infant expresses negative self-feelings, the caregiver must be careful not to contradict him. Contradicting the infant’s openly expressed feelings would serve only to increase his bad self-feelings, not to change them, because the implicit message is that he is wrong to think so. The change must come within the infant himself, who can accomplish the change only by allowing and accepting his bad feelings. An infant with low self-esteem needs many activities involving experiences with the senses focusing on similarities and differences between himself and objects, animals, people, and fruits. Through awareness of differences he can begin to view himself with new appreciation and can begin to see, approach, and contact others in the same light (Oaklander, 1988:283-284). For Oaklander (1988:284), body awareness is basic to a strong sense of self. A technique to promote self-awareness is to let the infant lie down on a sheet of paper so that the caregiver can draws around his limbs to make a live silhouette. While filling in the silhouette, the caregiver and the infant can discuss each part of the body, every feature, and each piece of clothing. Schoeman (1996:67) suggests that the infant be asked to name all the bad and good characteristics of the silhouette. When he gets the opportunity to project all his own characteristics into the silhouette, he is busy growing and changing from the way he manifests, to a fuller manifestation of his potential. The researcher is of the opinion that infants enjoy looking at their reflections in a mirror. A similar technique can be carried out with the infant standing, looking at himself in a mirror.

Biblio-play

Biblio-play is a form of play using books, reading, the written word and audiovisual mediums. Although the infant is unable to read, the caregiver can still use books. The infant can look at the pictures while she reads to him. The caregiver can select fantasy stories, which will expand the infant’s knowledge. The infant must be stimulated to react verbally to the fantasy stories, in order to develop his verbal skills. After reading the fantasy story, the caregiver and the infant can discuss it. Discussions can centre on the characters’ behaviour, feelings, relationships, causes and effects. The infant who is unable to verbalize his thoughts and feelings may find them expressed in books. Biblio-play offers possibilities for new behaviour patterns by providing models for positive behaviour modification. Awareness and insight will lead to growth and social development (compare Newman & Newman, 1987:204-205 and Thompson & Rudolph, 1992:199). The researcher is of the opinion that although the caregiver will not be doing the therapeutic process with the infant, the quality time spent together and the discussion in itself will have therapeutic value.

Creative play

Creative play is inventive, as it can manifest in various forms of arts and handcrafts (Porter, 1983:242-271). Various authors are of the opinion that art is an important medium of communication with infants whose verbal skills have not yet developed properly (compare Crompton, 1980:156; Allan & Clark, 1984:116- 124 and Oaklander, 1988:53). Crompton (1980:158) regards art therapy as a specialist area for which therapists are equipped through advanced study. The interpretation of children’s art is a specialist area. Creative play is functional in establishing a rapport between the infant and the caregiver and thus promotes communication (compare Porter, 1983:242-271 & Van der Merwe, 1991:277). Artwork can be relaxing to the infant, and offers him an opportunity to release his feelings. This can be followed by personal growth as it activates change and leads to insight. When the caregiver praises the infant for his creativity, she may be enhancing his self-image, and he may experience a feeling of success (Porter, 1983:242-271). The caregiver is not trained as a therapist and will only engage in creative play with the infant with the infant as a means of play activity.

TABLE OF CONTENTS :

• CHAPTER INTRODUCTION AND EXPLANATION OF THIS STUDY
  • 1.1 INTRODUCTION
  • 1.2 MOTIVATION FOR CHOICE OF SUBJECT
  • 1.3 PROBLEM FORMULATION
  • 1.4 GOAL AND OBJECTIVES OF STUDY
  • 1.4.1 Goal
  • 1.4.2 Objectives
  • 1.5 RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS
  • 1.6 RESEARCH APPROACH
  • 1.7 TYPE OF RESEARCH
  • 1.7.1 Problem analysis and project planning
  • 1.7.1.1 Identifying and involving clients
  • 1.7.1.2 Gaining entry and cooperation from settings
  • 1.7.1.3 Identifying concerns of the population
  • 1.7.1.4 Analyzing identified problems
  • 1.7.1.5 Setting goals and objectives
  • 1.7.2 Information gathering and synthesis
  • 1.7.2.1 Using existing information sources
  • 1.7.2.2 Studying natural examples
  • 1.7.2.3 Identifying functional elements of successful models
  • 1.7.3 Design
  • 1.8 RESEARCH DESIGN
  • 1.9 RESEARCH PROCEDURE AND STRATEGY
  • 1.9.1 Data collecting and analyses
  • 1.10 PILOT STUDY
  • 1.10.1 Literature study
  • 1.10.2 Consulting with experts
  • 1.10.3 Feasibility of the study
  • 1.10.4 Pilot test of focus groups, questionnaires and program
  • 1.11 DESCRIPTION OF THE RESEARCH POPULATION, DELIMITATION OF SAMPLE AND SAMPLING METHODOLOGY
  • 1.12 ETHICAL ISSUES
  • 1.13 PROBLEMS EXPERIENCED DURING THIS RESEARCH
  • 1.14 DEFINITIONS OF KEY CONCEPTS
  • 1.14.1 Caregiver
  • 1.14.2 Infant
  • 1.14.3 Social work(er)
  • 1.15 CONTENTS OF RESEARCH REPORT
• CHAPTER INFANCY: DEVELOPMENTAL TASKS AND STAGES, FORMS OF PLAY AND TECHNIQUES
  • 2.1 INTRODUCTION
  • 2.2 THE INFANT
  • 2.3 DEVELOPMENTAL TASKS
  • 2.4 PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT
  • 2.4.1 Development of motor functions
  • 2.4.2 Development of sensory functions
  • 2.5 COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
  • 2.5.1 Piaget’s theory of intelligence
  • 2.5.1.1 Structures
  • 2.5.1.2 Intrinsic activity
  • 2.5.1.3 Construction nature of cognition
  • 2.5.1.4 Epigenesis
  • 2.5.2 Sensorimotor intelligence
  • 2.6 LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT
  • 2.6.1 Language development
  • 2.7 PERSONALITY AND SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT
  • 2.7.1 Maslow’s hierarchy of needs
  • 2.7.2 Freud’s psychoanalytic theory
  • 2.7.2.1 Personality development
  • 2.7.2.2 Psycosexual development
  • 2.7.3 Erikson’s theory of development
  • 2.7.3.1 Basic trust versus Basic mistrust (synthesis: hope)
  • 2.7.3.2 Autonomy versus Shame and doubt (synthesis: will power)
  • 2.7.4 Layers of neuroses (structure of personality)
  • 2.7.4.1 Phony layer
  • 2.7.4.2 Phobic layer
  • 2.7.4.3 Impasse layer
  • 2.7.4.4 Implosive layer
  • 2.7.4.5 Explosive layer
  • 2.7.5 Attachment
  • 2.7.5.1 Stages of attachment
  • 2.7.5.2 Quality of attachment
  • 2.7.6 Interaction with peers
  • 2.7.7 Development of self and self-confidence
  • 2.7.8 Emotional expression
  • 2.8 FORMS OF PLAY AND TECHNIQUES
  • 2.8.1 Assessment play
  • 2.8.2 Biblio-play
  • 2.8.3 Dramatic play
  • 2.8.4 Creative play
  • 2.9 MASSAGE TECHNIQUES
  • 2.9.1 The science of baby massage
  • 2.9.2 The basics of infant therapeutic massage
  • 2.9.3 The Mozart Effect: A link to baby intelligence
  • 2.10 MUSIC AS A TECHNIQUE
  • 2.11 SUMMARY
• CHAPTER CHARACTERISTICS, ROLLS AND RESPONSIBILITIES OF A CAREGIVER WITHIN THE FAMILY SYSTEM
  • 3.1 INTRODUCTION
  • 3.2 CHARACTERISTICS, ROLLS AND RESPONSIBILITIES OF A CAREGIVER
  • 3.2.1 Characteristics of a caregiver
  • 3.2.2 Rolls of a caregiver
  • 3.2.3 Responsibilities of a caregiver
  • 3.3 FACTORS IN RECRUITING A CAREGIVER
  • 3.3.1 Telephone interview
  • 3.3.2 Face-to-face interview
  • 3.3.3 Checking references and background checks
  • 3.3.4 A second interview
  • 3.3.5 The caregiver is hired
  • 3.3.6 Building a relationship with the caregiver
  • 3.4 SEPARATION BETWEEN MOTHER AND INFANT
  • 3.4.1 Strategies for dealing with separation
  • 3.5 INFANT SAFETY
  • 3.5.1 Indoor safety
  • 3.5.2 Outdoor safety
  • 3.6 CONCLUTION
• CHAPTER A PRACTICAL PROGRAM FOR INHOME-CARE OF AN INFANT
  • 4.1 INTRODUCTION
  • 4.2 A PROGRAM FOR THE DEVELOPMENT AND ENHANCEMENT OF THE DEVELOPMENTAL TASKS AND SKILLS OF INFANCY
  • 4.2.1 MONDAY’S PROGRAM
  • 4.2.1.1 Physical development of the infant
  • 4.2.1.2 Cognitive development of the infant
  • 4.2.1.3 Emotional development of the infant
  • 4.2.1.4 Social development of the infant
  • 4.2.1.5 Development of the self-image of the infant
  • 4.2.2 TEUSDAY’S PROGRAM
  • 4.2.2.1 Physical development of the infant
  • 4.2.2.2 Cognitive development of the infant
  • 4.2.2.3 Emotional development of the infant
  • 4.2.2.4 Social development of the infant
  • 4.2.2.5 Development of the self-image of the infant
  • 4.2.3 WEDNESDAY’S PROGRAM
  • 4.2.3.1 Physical development of the infant
  • 4.2.3.2 Cognitive development of the infant
  • 4.2.3.3 Emotional development of the infant
  • 4.2.3.4 Social development of the infant
  • 4.2.3.5 Development of the self-image of the infant
  • 4.2.4 THURSDAY’S PROGRAM
  • 4.2.4.1 Physical development of the infant
  • 4.2.4.2 Cognitive development of the infant
  • 4.2.4.3 Emotional development of the infant
  • 4.2.4.4 Social development of the infant
  • 4.2.4.5 Development of the self-image of the infant
  • 4.2.5 FRIDAY’S PROGRAM
  • 4.2.5.1 Physical development of the infant
  • 4.2.5.2 Cognitive development of the infant
  • 4.2.5.3 Emotional development of the infant
  • 4.2.5.4 Social development of the infant
  • 4.2.5.5 Development of the self-image of the infant
  • 4.3 SUMMARY
• CHAPTER EMPIRICAL FINDINGS WITH THE DEVELOPMENT AND IMPLEMENTATION OF THE TRAINING PROGRAMME FOR IN-HOME CARE OF AN INFANT
  • 5.1 INTRODUCTION
  • 5.2 GOAL AND OBJECTIVES OF THIS STUDY
  • 5.3 HYPOTHESIS
  • 5.4 RESEARCH METHOLOGY
  • 5.4.1 Research approach
  • 5.4.2 Type of research
  • 5.4.3 Intervention research approach
  • 5.4.3.1 Problem analysis and project planning
  • 5.4.3.2 Information gathering and synthesis
  • 5.4.3.3 Design
  • 5.4.3.4 Early development and pilot testing
  • 5.4.3.5 Evaluation and advanced development
  • 5.4.3.6 Dissimination
  • 5.5 QUALITATIVE FINDINGS
  • 5.5.1 Discussion of the schematic presentation of the categories, themes and sub-themes: Mothers of infants
  • 5.5.2 Discussion of the schematic presentation of the categories, themes and sub-themes: Caregivers of infants
  • 5.6 EVALUATION OF THE PROGRAM FOR THE CAREGIVER OF AN INFANT
  • 5.6.1 Evaluation of questions about the caregiver
  • 5.6.2 Evaluation of the program for the physical development of the infant
  • 5.6.3 Evaluation of the program for the cognitive development of the infant
  • 5.6.4 Evaluation of the program for the emotional development of the infant
  • 5.6.5 Evaluation of the program for the social development of the infant
  • 5.6.6 Evaluation of the program for the development of the infant’s self-image
  • 5.7 SUMMARY
• CHAPTER CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
  • 6.1 INTRODUCTION
  • 6.2 EVALUATION OF THE GOAL
  • 6.3 EVALUATION OF THE OBJECTIVES
  • 6.4 RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS
  • 6.5 SUMMARIZED CONCLUSIONS OF THIS RESEARCH
  • 6.6 RECOMMENDATIONS
  • 6.7 FINAL CONCLUSION

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A SOCIAL WORK TRAINING PROGRAMME FOR CAREGIVERS OF INFANTS IN SAN BERNARDINO COUNTY, CALIFORNIA