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Distinguishing characteristics of learners of different age groups, and the differences and similarities between these age groups in the context of web-based technologies
In line with Outcomes-Based Education (OBE) – a learner-centred approach – the following should be considered in the development and implementation of web-based technologies:
- Different learning styles and rates of learning (Virtual Campus, 1998a); and
- the importance of the existing knowledge of learners.
Hannafin and Peck (1988:48) assert that “learning may be more efficient when the instruction is adapted to the needs and profiles of individual learners”. The characteristics of each group of learners under investigation in this study will now be discussed, examining what the literature suggests regarding each group, i.e. children, undergraduates and postgraduates/adult learners. In Chapter 6, the researcher will assess each group’s experience of the web-based technology they used, and how it matched/did not match their characteristics.
The various age groups have been classified into distinct categories, namely: the Millennial Generation, Generation X (Xers), and Baby Boomers, for children, undergraduates and postgraduate learners respectively. Table 2.12 lists the different groups along with their generations.
Society has attached a negative connotation to Generation X. In the early 1990s, Generation X achieved notoriety as a media label designed to pigeon-hole American youth into the stereotypical image of the disaffected slacker. They were classified as “baby-busters”, “slackers”, “twenty-something”, the “generation without a conscience”, the “lost generation”, the “13th generation”, the “me generation”, but most commonly and most enigmatically as “Generation X” (Slattery, 1996).
On the positive side, they are independent thinkers who make their own decisions – using their own values, norms and standards, instead of conforming to convention. Xers are able to face problems on their own and have confidence in their ability to fend for themselves. They grew up with computers and tend to be highly techno-savvy and entrepreneurial. Xers watched as the Boomers were downsized and overtaken by technology trends and believe that the “corporation as parent” is history (Judd, 2000). They tend to be loyal to the project they are attached to, and are concerned about building their individual skills (Judd, 2000).
The Millennial Generation, like the Xers, are used to facing problems on the own, since both parents work outside the home. The latter has made them dependent on their peers. They reach out to people and have a strong desire to be connected and to collaborate with others (Miller, 2001). The Net Generation have been influenced by intensive Internet usage. They are active and participate, in that they inquire, discuss, argue, play, shop, critique, investigate, ridicule, fantasise, seek and inform (Tapscott, 1999). The Millennial Generation encompasses most of the Net Generation, and hence will be discussed under the Millennial Generation.
Characteristics of children as learners
According to du Plooy (et al, 1982) each child needs security and safety. The child looks to the future with expectation and from the beginning tries to discern and capture meaning in the world. A fundamental characteristic of children is also the need to communicate, and to step out of themselves to explore and discover and to become the somebody they want to be. In this respect the teacher needs to provide every child with a fair chance to explore authentically by bringing the world into the four walls of the classroom (du Plooy et al, 1982). The Web has the advantage of doing just this, in that it opens up the world to the child, provides a base from which the child can explore, and also exposes a child to the real world and to virtual learning.
Piaget concluded that intellectual development is the result of the interaction of hereditary and environmental factors (Ginn, 1995). As children develop and interact with the world around them, knowledge is invented and reinvented. Piaget believed that a child’s thinking and learning involve the active participation of the learner. He asserted that for a child to know and construct knowledge of the world, the child must act on objects and it is action which provides knowledge of those objects, i.e. the mind organises reality and acts upon it. His approach to learning is a readiness approach, which emphasises that children cannot learn something until maturation gives them certain prerequisites. He espoused active discovery- learning environments in schools, believing that children need to explore, to manipulate, to experiment, to question and to seek answers for themselves. Activity is thus essential for children (Ginn, 1995). Piaget’s theory of intellectual development is in line with current thinking and Outcomes-Based Education – a method of teaching where the learner is the most important consideration and learning happens through activities (Pretorius, 2000).
According to Miller (2001), as a result of a society that is constantly undergoing change, young people in the Millennial Generation have taken on the following characteristics:
- Prefer to work with their peers or groups than with adults;
- need to reach people of their own age;
- need quick responses to activities;
- are creative thinkers able to customise things to their needs;
- need to explore and do things; and
- are achievement-oriented.
Judd (2000) describes the Millenial Generation as energetic – needing continual stimulation and challenge. They are comfortable juggling many things at once and will move on quickly if they get bored or dissatisfied (Judd, 2000). Tapscott (1999) comments that these children argue and debate, and are easily vocal on any information they encounter with a click of a mouse. They rely on their own point of view, test it, and alter it if appropriate (Tapscott, 1999). They are the first generation to grow up surrounded by digital media.
An undergraduate is usually a post-school youth, late adolescent or early adult who has left the pedagogic didactic environment of his family home and school, to continue his/her studies as a learner in the company of other adults to receive training for a career.
Laidlaw (1998) has compiled a profile of a typical Generation X learner, having four main characteristics, namely: independent and self-reliant, technoliterate, expectation of instant gratification and self-building. A description of these characteristics is given in Table 2.13.
A further characteristic of Generation X is that they are able to work co-operatively with other young people (Brown, 1997). They are therefore more comfortable with the “collaborative approach” (Haskell, 1996). Problem-solving is a social activity and consequently this form of learning is social activity (Miller, 2001).
Miller (2001) characterises Generation X as independent problem-solvers, self-starters, responsive, focused, ambitious, fearless and technologically literate.
Characteristics of postgraduate learners
Cronjé (et al, 2000a) analysed Ference and Vockell’s (1994:25) list of adult learning needs and set them out in table format, provided as Table 2.14.
Similarities between the groups
From examining the characteristics of each group of learners, it appears that children and undergraduates also take on some of the typical characteristics of adult learners.
These three groups of learners hold certain common characteristics. They are:
- Active learners;
- self-directed;
- skill-seeking;
- need guidance; and
- internally or externally
Taking the characteristics of Generation X as described by Laidlaw (1998), it would seem that Generation X (undergraduate learners), and Baby Boomers (postgraduate learners) also share some characteristics, namely, they are:
- Hands-on;
- task-centred;
- value-driven;
- skill-seeking; and
- internally or externally
Differences between the groups
The term “andragogy” is used to distinguish the teaching and learning of adults (including undergraduates) from “pedagogy”, the teaching and learning of children (Noren, 1997).
Hence, in literature the descriptor “andragogic” is used to refer to adults, and “pedagogic” to refer to children.
Andragogy became an integral part of the language of adult education through the efforts of Malcolm Knowles. Knowles felt that the learning of adults is so different to the learning of children that it required its own descriptor (Noren, 1997). Andragogy embraces a number of concepts, including several mentioned in Table 2.14:
- Adults want to know why they need to learn something before they begin learning
- Adults see themselves as self-sufficient and responsible for their own
- Adults have a wealth of experiences which they bring to the learning
- Adults are ready to learn when they have a need to learn.
- Adults are problem-centred in their
- Adults’ motivation for learning comes from more internal than external factors (Knowles, 1989).
Andragogy provides designers and lecturers/teachers with a framework from which to approach their work. The differences between the three groups of learners, taking into account the concepts embracing andragogy, are given in Table 2.15.
Of particular interest in Table 2.15 is learners’ view on learning. While children are eager to learn new things, undergraduates and postgraduates seem to be more concerned about the value particular tasks hold, and postgraduates are especially concerned about applying what they have learnt to their life situation.
Learning possibilities for children, undergraduates and postgraduates in the context of web-based technologies
The Web provides a process that facilitates learning and a metaphor that might help to re- think learning as a more active and engaging process. The engagement of learners in learning and the consequent development of learning as a life-long commitment must be a key objective for the future (Kennedy, 1999).
The Web holds the following advantages as given by Kennedy (1999):
- It is open, accessible and full of
- It facilitates access to information retrieval but leaves individuals free to decide what is important.
- It facilitates communication across national and cultural
- It provides the conditions under which learning can take place, but does not construct learning in any particular way.
Kennedy (1999) asserts that these advantages need to be the characteristics of pedagogy/andragogy in the new century if learners are to be engaged in learning, and if they are to become committed to lifelong learning.
Children
Kennedy (1999) believes that the Web can and will play a central role as a learning tool in the future, as young people adapt to it easily and schools may be the only social sites where equal access can be guaranteed. Possibilities of web-learning for children include the following:
- Children can search for information, rather than simply look at it. This forces them to develop thinking and investigative skills, as they have to become the critics and judge whether resources on the Web are of good quality or not (Tapscott, 1999).
- Interactions can be facilitated by using small discussion groups. Classes could go offline for brief discussions of particular issues and then go online to discuss their findings with a larger group (Flottemesch, 2000).
- Children can communicate with one another and argue and debate issues (Ginn, 1995). This forces them to exercise not only their critical thinking, but also their judgement.
In this regard, they are likely to become a generation of critical thinkers, because they have the tools to question, challenge and disagree at their disposal. According to Tapscott (1999), this results in Millennial Generation children questioning the implicit value contained in information.
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- Children can use the Web not only to learn, but to learn practical skills, by constructing learning products with an HTML editor, and to engage in peer teaching as they construct their projects with other children. In this way children communicate their understanding of the subject to those around them. They also become active participants instead of passive “sponges”, and the teacher takes on the role of facilitator as he/she guides them in their creations (Ginn, 1995).
- Children can learn the social skills required for effective interaction in the knowledge- based society, as they experience electronic peer relationships, teamwork, criticism, fun online, friendships across geographical boundaries and communicate their ideas (Tapscott, 1999).
Web-based technologies correspond well to Piagetian thought (see section 2.3.1), which postulates that a child’s thinking and learning involve the active participation of the learner. It is the teacher’s role to assess the child’s current cognitive levels, and his/her strengths and weaknesses. Piaget saw teachers as facilitators of knowledge – whose role was to guide and stimulate the children. Teachers can do the latter by presenting children with web-based technologies that are appropriate for various situations and occasions in which they can discover new learning (Ginn, 1995).
A wide range of technological options are currently available for undergraduate and postgraduate learners (Huang, 2000). The possibilities of web-based technologies are similar for both groups, hence their joint discussion. Table 2.16 presents commonly used technologies that both can use in web-based instruction. The term “learner” is used in this section to refer to undergraduate and postgraduate learners.
Abstract
Samevatting
Acknowledgements
Brief Table of Contents
Detailed Table of Contents
List of Figures
List of Tables
List of Abbreviations
List of Appendices
Definition of Terms
1 Introduction
1.1 introduction
1.2 Research problem
1.3 Aim of research
1.4 Objectives of the research
1.5 Research questions
1.6 Previous research
1.7 Value of research
1.8 Methodology
1.8.1 Research design
1.8.2 Data collection methods
1.9 Limitations of this study
1.10 Specific exclusion from this study
1.11 Outline of the dissertation
1.12 Summary
2 Literature review
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Aspects to consider for web-based technologies
2.2.1 Pedagogical/andragogical aspects
2.2.1.1 Pedagogical and andragogical didactic situations
2.2.1.2 Objectivist and constructivist epistemology
2.2.1.3 Collaborative learning
2.2.2 Affective/emotional aspects
2.2.3 Communicative aspects
2.2.3.1 Instructional/content interactivity
2.2.3.2 Social interactivity
2.2.4 Technological aspects
2.2.4.1 Benefits and limitations of web-based material
2.2.4.2 Types of CMC
2.2.4.3 Technological benefits and limitations of CMC
2.3 Distinguishing characteristics of learners of different age groups, and the differences and similarities between these age groups in the context of web-based technologies
2.3.1 Characteristics of children as learners
2.3.2 Characteristics of undergraduate learners
2.3.3 Characteristics of postgraduate learners
2.4 Learning possibilities for children, undergraduates and postgraduates in the context of web-based technologies
2.4.1 Children
2.4.2 Undergraduates and postgraduates
2.4.3 Learner characteristics and design implications
2.5 Web-learning possibilities for contact teaching and distance learning
2.5.1 Contact teaching
2.5.2 Distance learning
2.6 Summary
3 Case study 1: Investigation of an educational web site
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Research questions
3.3. Literature review
3.3.1 Motivational aspects of children’s web sites
3.3.2 Evaluation of educational web sites
3.4 Context and research design
3.4.1 International and national context
3.4.2 Institutional context and research design
3.5 Method
3.6 Specifics of Plane Math
3.6.1 Nature of tutorial
3.7 Results
3.7.1 Pedagogical aspects
3.7.1.1 What was the response of the children with regard to their own learning?
3.7.1.2 How relevant is Plane Math to the school curriculum?
3.7.2 Affective/emotional aspects
3.7.2.1 Did the children enjoy their learning experience?
3.7.3 Communicative aspects
3.7.3.1 To what extent does the site employ adequate Instructional Design (ID) principles?
3.7.3.2 To what extent does the Human-Computer Interaction (HCI) promote learning or hinder it?
3.7.4 Technological aspects
3.7.4.1 To what extent does the technology support effective use?
3.8 Summary
3.9 Recommendations
4 Case study 2: Investigation of a web-based CMS delivered by WebCT
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Research questions
4.3 Literature review
4.4 Contex
4.5 Method
4.6 Specifics of WebCT
4.7 Results
4.8 Learners’ comments matched against their characteristics
4.9 Summary
4.10 Recommendations
4.11 New features
5 Case study 3: Investigation of a postgraduate web-based classroom
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Research questions
5.3 Literature review
5.4 Context
5.5 Method
5.6 Course outline
5.7 Results
5.8 Summary
5.9 Recommendations
6 Conclusions and recommendations
6.1 Introduction
6.2 What role do the aspects under investigation play in web-based technologies?
6.3 What are the distinguishing characteristics of learners of different age groups, and what are the differences and similarities between these age groups in the context of web-based technologies?
6.4 What are the learning possibilities for children, undergraduates and postgraduates in the context of web-based technologies?
6.5 What are the web-learning possibilities for contact teaching and distance learning?
6.6 Gaps in this study
6.7 Challenges arising
6.8 Concluding remarks
References
Appendices
