MAJOR FACTORS LEADING TO THE PROLIFERATION OF STREET VENDING/TRADE IN GHANA

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INTRODUCTION

Many children in Ghana are engaged in work, because of the socio-economic situation of their families. For these children, a normal childhood and a sound education are compromised by premature involvement in economic activities in order to survive (Bruscino, 2001; Beveridge, 2005:47; Windborne, 2006:166). It is estimated that more than 218 million children worldwide are engaged in employment (UNICEF, 2010) which often involves heavy and hazardous work. Child labour practices violate international conventions which aim to protect children from economic exploitation and from engaging in work that interferes with their schooling, thus causing a situation which may be damaging to their health and development (Daiute, 2008; Marks, 2012:11). Children of street vendors can be categorised as economically active children. Children of street vendors face enormous socio-educational challenges which often arise from the socio-economic status of their parents. The parents are unable to provide for the various social and educational needs of their children, thereby forcing them onto the streets to make a living. According to Bruscino (2001) children vending on the streets in Ghana is not a matter of choice, but rather of necessity. With almost thirty percent of Ghanaians living below the poverty line, many parents are compelled to depend on their children for the extra income needed for survival. Canagarajah and Coulombe (1997:8) caution that as long as the threat of poverty lingers in a household, parents will send their children to work which would adversely affect the education and development of the children. This corroborates Windborne‘s (2006:166) assertion that most often these children are found on the street selling or working instead of attending school, not only for their own upkeep, but also to support their parents by supplementing the household income. The socio-educational and economic implications are destructive, negative and harmful to the development of these children. According to Pittman and Chase-Landsdale (2001:200), children growing up in impoverished communities face multiple social, emotional, educational and economic obstacles in life; their situation is characterised by severe and chronic poverty within the family and the neighbourhood which manifests in crime and violence, inadequate schooling, no recreational activities and peers who may be young parents or are part of gangs. Thus, children of street vendors in Ghana face
several challenges and obstacles as a result of growing up in impoverished communities.

RATIONALE OF THE STUDY

Given the challenges and vulnerability of children of street vendors as described above, this study sought to explore how they develop socially and educationally. Available statistics show that one in four children works in Ghana in either a labour market or household enterprise, while one out of five children goes to school and works (Canagarajah & Coulombe, 1997:27; GSS, 2011; USDL, 2008). According to the Ghana Statistical Service, ―…out of the estimated 4.7 million children aged seven
to fourteen years, an estimated 612,388 children (13%) are economically active…‖ (GSS, 2008:5) as a result of socio-economic problems. The GSS further points out that some evidence shows that in Ghana, children as young as five years are working (GSS, 2008). According to the United Nations Children‘s Fund (UNICEF) it is estimated that as many as 40,000 children are living on the streets in the cities and towns in Ghana. In Accra there are more than 21,140 working children, according to estimates by the Catholic Action for Street Children (CASC, 2010). A lack of statistical data and studies on children of street vendors hamper the provision of accurate data on the subject matter.

PROBLEM STATEMENT

Street vending became an integral part of the socio-economic structure of Ghana‘s economy as a result of a combination of political and socio-economic conditions (Mutillah, 2003:4; Barwa, 1995:3-4; Zapata, Contreras & Kruger, 2010; Boafo-Arthur, 1999:48; Folson, 2006:76; Ibhawoh, 1999:160; Windborne, 2006:158) Many Ghanaians have no other alternative but to enter the informal sector, thereby engaging in street vending, petty trading and hawking, and taking their children along with them. Even though the majority of children of street vendors are enrolled in schools, they spend most of their time selling on the streets for their parents (Balegamire, 1999:248; Windborne, 2006:166). Akyeampong (2009:193) confirms that most of these children work and attend school at the same time in order to supplement family income or for their own survival, and they consequently often turn up late at school. As children spend the greater part of their time working, their interest in school is diverted (Fafchampsy, 2009:10; Miller, 2005:32), rendering regular school attendance nearly impossible. Even some of those that do attend become so tired from working that they cannot concentrate in the classroom, let alone do their homework, and they therefore abandon education prematurely (Bruscino, 2001; Banerji, Bissell & Thomas, 2010:14).

Child labourer

A child labourer is defined as an economically active child who is being exploited. According to Edmonds (2007) most working children in developing countries are supporting their family at home or the family business. In general, the minimum age of employment is at least 15 years of age or the minimum age of completion of compulsory schooling (Edmonds, 2007). In this study, the concept child labourer will refer to a child between the ages of seven and eleven who is working on the street with his or her parents or guardians.

Street vending/vendor

A street vendor is broadly defined as a self-employed worker in the informal sector who trades in goods or services at public places without having a permanent structure. Street vendors may occupy space on the pavements, sidewalks, alleyways or they may be mobile by moving from place to place with their loads on their head or on wheelbarrows. They usually sell their wares to passengers in moving vehicles or have their stalls, kiosks, shops or containers located by the road side (Bhowmik, 2001; Mitullah, 2003:7-8). They position themselves along major roads and streets at strategic points with heavy human traffic, near shopping malls or at areas where they can be reached by pedestrians and motorists (Mitullah, 2003:7-8). Street vendors deal in a number of activities and trade in a variety of commodities (Macharia, 2007; Mitullah, 2003:7-8). Some street vendors live and sleep in and around their stalls or kiosks or even containers.

DECLARATION
DEDICATION
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
ABSTRACT
CHAPTER 1 ORIENTATION AND BACKGROUND
1.1 INTRODUCTION
1.2 RATIONALE OF THE STUDY
1.3 PROBLEM STATEMENT
1.3.1 Research questions
1.3.2 Aims of the study
1.3.3 Basic assumptions of the study
1.4 CLARIFICATION OF CONCEPTS
1.4.1 Children/Childhood
1.4.2 Child labourer
1.4.3 Street vending/vendor
1.4.4 Children of street vendors vs. street children
1.4.5 Social development
1.4.6 Educational development
1.4.7 Structural Adjustment Programme
1.5 LITERATURE REVIEW
1.5.1 The educational challenges of children of street vendors in Ghana
1.5.2 The social challenges of children of street vendors in Ghana
1.5.3 The health and emotional challenges of children of street vendors in Ghana
1.5.4 Family crisis and single parents
1.5.5 Abuse and neglect of children of street vendors
1.5.6 Street life of children of street vendors
1.5.7 Factors leading to the proliferation of street vending in Ghana
1.5.7.1 Economic climate
1.5.7.2 The political climate
1.5.7.3 Educational situation
1.5.7.4 Urbanization/Industrialization/migration
1.5.7.5 Overpopulation
1.5.7.6 Unemployment
1.5.8 Effect of poverty on children of street vendors
1.6 THEORETICAL AND CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORKS
1.6.1 Bronfenbrenner’s ecological theory
1.6.1.1 Microsystem
1.6.1.2 Mesosystem
1.6.1.3 Exosystem
1.6.1.4 Macrosystem
1.6.1.5 Chronosystem
1.6.2 Piaget’s theory of cognitive development
1.6.2.1 Piaget‘s four stages of cognitive development
1.6.2.2 The concrete operational stage
1.7 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
1.7.1 Paradigmatic perspective
1.7.1.1 Interpretive paradigm
1.7.1.2 Qualitative research approach
1.7.2 Case study research design
1.7.3 Phenomenological approach
1.7.4 Population
1.7.5 Sampling
1.7.6 Participants
1.7.7 The role of the researcher
1.7.8 Data collection strategies
1.7.8.1 Interviews
1.7.8.2 Observations
1.7.8.3 Field notes
1.8 DATA ANALYSIS
1.8.1 Trustworthiness
1.8.2 Delimitation of the study
1.9 ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS
1.10 LAYOUT OF THE STUDY
CHAPTER 2 THE STREET VENDING PHENOMENON
2.1 INTRODUCTION
2.2 THE HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF GHANA
2.3 MAJOR FACTORS LEADING TO THE PROLIFERATION OF STREET VENDING/TRADE IN GHANA
2.3.1 Economic factors leading to the proliferation of street vending in Ghana
2.3.1.1 Pre Independence
2.3.1.2 Post Independence
2.3.1.3 Structural Adjustment Programme (SAP)
2.3.1.4 Impact of Structural Adjustment Programme
2.3.2 Political factors leading to the proliferation of street vendingin Ghana
2.3.3 Education factors leading to the proliferation of street vendingin Ghana
2.3.3.1 Importance/value of education
2.3.3.2 Trends in education in Ghana after independence
2.3.3.3 Major education reforms in basic education in Ghana after independence
2.3.3.4 Emerging challenges in education reforms in basic education in Ghana
2.3.3.5 Challenges in the education of children of street vendors in Ghana
2.3.4 Informal economy
2.3.4.1 Street trading/street vending
2.3.4.2 Challenges facing the informal sector/street trading
2.3.5 Urbanization and overpopulation
2.3.6 Migration
2.3.7 Unemployment
2.3.8 Poverty
2.4 CONCLUDING REMARKS
CHAPTER 3 THE THEORETICAL, CONCEPTUAL AND CONTEXTUAL FRAMEWORKS
3.1 INTRODUCTION
3.2 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
3.2.1 Bronfenbrenner Theory of Ecological Systems (1979)
3.2.1.1 The microsystem
3.2.1.2 The mesosystem
3.2.1.3 The exosystem
3.2.1.4 The macrosystem
3.2.1.5 The chronosystem
3.3 THE DEVELOPMENT OF CHILDREN AS A CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
3.3.1 Physical development
3.3.2 Socio-emotional development
3.3.3 Cognitive development
3.3.3.1 Piaget‘s theory of cognitive development (1973)
3.3.3.1. i The Sensorimotor stage (birth to 2 years)
3.3.3.1.ii The Pre-Operational stage (2 to 7 years)
3.3.3.1.iii The Concrete Operational stage (7 to 11 years)
3.3.3.1.iv The Formal Operational stage (12 years to adult)
3.3.3.1.v The Concrete Operational stage as the focus for my study (7 to 11years)
3.3.4 Connotative development
3.4 THE CONTEXTUAL FRAMEWORK
3.4.1 Rights of Children
3.4.1.1 The United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC)
3.4.1.2 Rights of children as enshrined in the 1992 constitution of Ghana
3.4.1.3 Education as a Basic Human Right of the Child
3.4.1.4 Education as a Basic Human Right as enshrined in the 1992 constitution of Ghana
3.4.2 Children/Childhood
3.4.2.1 Childhood in Ghana
3.4.2.2 ―At-Risk‖ Children
3.4.3 Family crisis
3.4.4 The impact of poverty on the family
3.4.5 Child labour/Child labourer
3.4.6 Street Children/Streetism/Children of street vendors
3.4.7 The street life of children of street vendors
3.4.8 Peer relationship and influence on children of street vendors
3.5 CONCLUDING REMARKS
CHAPTER 4 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
4.1 INTRODUCTION
4.2 RESEARCH QUESTIONS
4.3 RESEARCH DESIGN
4.3.1 Research paradigm
4.3.2 Research approach
4.3.3 Research type
4.4 RESEARCH METHODS
4.4.1 Research site and participants
4.4.1.1 Purposive sampling
4.4.1.2 Research site
4.4.1.3 Research participants
4.4.2 Data collection methods
4.4.2.1 Semi-structured interviews
4.4.2.2 Observation
4.4.2.3 The role of the researcher
4.4.3 Data analysis
4.4.4 Trustworthiness
4.4.4.1 Credibility
4.4.4.2 Transferability
4.4.4.3 Dependability
4.4.4.4 Confirmability
4.4.5 Ethical considerations
4.5 CONCLUDING REMARKS
CHAPTER 5 DATA ANALYSIS
5.1 INTRODUCTION
5.2 RESEARCH PROCESS
5.2.1 Anecdotal narrative of gaining access
5.2.1.1 Meeting with assemblyman
5.2.1.2 Meeting with assemblyman and research assistant
5.2.1.3 The role of the research assistant
5.2.1.4 First meeting of prospective participants
5.2.1.5 Visit to Department of Social Welfare and meeting with the social worker
5.2.1.6 The role of the social worker
5.2.1.7 Second meeting (meeting with selected participants and their parents)
5.2.2 The interview sessions
5.2.2.1 Interviews with children
5.2.2.2 Interviews with parents
5.2.3 Observations
5.2.3.1 Observing those who sell chilled sachet water
5.2.3.2 Observing those who help their mothers sell kenkey
5.2.3.3 Observing those who assist parents work on scrap for sale
5.3 TRUSTWORTHINESS
5.4 DATA ANALYSIS
5.4.1 Biographical data
5.4.1.1 Participant 1: ―Dromor
5.4.1.2 Participant 2: ―Nyany
5.4.1.3 Participant 3: ―Kawia
5.4.1.4 Participant 4: ―Saka
5.4.1.5 Participant 5: ―Kosali
5.4.1.6 Participant 6: ―Muniru
5.4.2 Key findings: Interviews
5.4.2.1 Family composition
5.4.2.2 Housing and sleeping places of participants
5.4.2.3 Household access to services and food
5.4.2.4 Economics activities of participants
5.4.2.5 The effect of work on studies
5.4.2.6 Schooling
5.4.2.7 Friendship and play
5.4.2.8 Abuse
5.4.2.9 Street life experience
5.4.2.10 Aspirations for the future
5.4.3 Key findings: observation
5.4.3.1 Observation of Dromor
5.4.3.2 Observation of Nyanyo
5.4.3.3 Observation of Kawia
5.4.3.4 Observation of Saka
5.4.3.5 Observation of Kosali
5.4.3.6 Observation of Muniru
5.4.4 Themes and categories
5.5 CONCLUDING REMARKS
CHAPTER 6 THE DATA INTERPRETATION
6.1 INTRODUCTION 208
6.2 THEMES, CATEGORIES AND SUB-CATEGORIES
6.2.1 Theme 1: Home Environment
6.2.2 Theme 2: Street work
6.2.3 Theme 3: Educational development
6.2.4 Theme 4: Social development
6.2.5 Theme 5: Future aspirations
6.3 CONCLUDING REMARKS
CHAPTER 7 SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
7.1 INTRODUCTION
7.2 OVERVIEW OF THE PRECEDING CHAPTERS
7.3 SUMMARY
7.3.1 Summary of literature findings
7.3.2 Summary of empirical findings
7.4 RESEARCH CONCLUSIONS
7.4.1 Sub-question 1: What is the nature and prevalence of children of street vendors in Ghana?
7.4.2 Sub-question 2: How do the familial circumstances of children of street vendors affect their socio-educational development?
7.4.3 Sub-question 3: How does life on the street affect the socio-educational development of children of street vendors?
7.4.4 Primary research question: What are the social and educational challenges in the development of children of street vendors?
7.5 RECOMMENDATIONS
7.5.1 Recommendation 1
7.5.2 Recommendation 2
7.5.3 Recommendation 3
7.5.4 Recommendation 4
7.5.5 Recommendation 5
7.5.6 Recommendation 6
7.5.7 Recommendation 7
7.5.8 Recommendation 8
7.5.9 Recommendation 9
7.5.10 Recommendation 10
7.5.11 Recommendation 11
7.5.12 Recommendation 12
7.5.13 Recommendation 13
7.5.14 Recommendation 14
7.5.15 Recommendation 15
7.6 RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH
7.7 LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY
7.8 FINAL REMARKS
REFERENCES
APPENDICES