Mobile phone usage in education

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Theoretical frame and concepts

Theoretical background

As the previous research identified, ICTs are a potential tool to strengthen development. Moreover, it demonstrates that mobile phones are the most common ICT in sub-Saharan Africa. According to The World Bank Group (2017), 76 out of 100 people had a mobile phone subscription in this region in 2015. Thereby Tanzania correlates to the average because 76 percent of all Tanzanians had a mobile phone during the research period. In Zambia, on the contrary, only 74 out of 100 people possessed a subscription whereby the country is located below the mean. In media and communication science, societal change is often linked to a transformation of communication patterns. Mobile phones became indispensable for communication since they are able to connect people from all around the world. Furthermore, they can be utilized as an educational tool because they “could provide affordable access to education in remote areas, nomadic and displaced communities“ (Svensson & Wamala, 2012, p. 12). However, previous research did not examine if natives want to adapt the ICT. For this reason, the modernization theory as well as the postcolonial theory get applied to investigate if mobile phones are a potential educational tool from a local perspective.

Modernization theory

The digitalization altered not only private actions, the economic sector and administration systems but also enabled worldwide communication. ICTs became part of everyday life and a determining factor of modernization (Kunst, 2014, pp. 1-2). The term ‘modernization’ first appeared in the 18th century and represents the composition of the words ‘modernize’ and ‘modern’. It comprises two different meanings: the process of becoming the newest, latest and most sophisticated as well as the state of having the process finalized. In social science, modernization describes the conversion from a traditional society to a social one. From a theoretical point of view, it is delineated as international competition and civilizational modification (He, 2012, pp. 3-13). In virtue of Rostow’s model, development and modernization are inseparably connected (Ahmad, 2013, p. 21). After the end of World War II, Western countries began to focus on the enhancement of economic development in Third World nations. Pursuant to Bull (2006), development was considered as economic growth, as linear process and as universal process which does not differentiate between single nations (as cited in Kunst, 2014, p. 3). Thereupon, Western scholars established the modernization theory. Its main assumption is that former colonies lack economic, technological and social development wherefore the modernization model needs to be applied (Ahmad, 2013, pp. 19-20). This model is based on the connection between modern merits, behaviors and societies, economic development and modernizing organizations. The modernization theory was the first theoretical approach that dealt with the benefits of transferring technology. It was enforced by the Western scientists Rogers (1969), Schramm (1964) and Lerner (1958) who viewed technologies as principal supporter of economic development in Third World countries (Obijiofor, 2015, p. 6). Within this theory, international communication is considered as indispensable to promote modernization and with it development. Media assist to transfer concepts from industrialized to developing countries whereby these get developed and lose their traditional stunting. From this it follows that ICTs have the power to convert societies and thereby modernize them. Lerner (1958) described media as mobility multiplier that allows human beings to learn about foreign places and cultures while being forced to give up traditions and to adapt a modern lifestyle. In this connection, Western approaches are considered the most effective since industrialized nations are most developed and powerful. Since the 1970s, the degree of media development is considered as indicator for societal development (Thussu, 2006, pp. 42-44). In compliance with the modernization theory, a modern society is characterized by its structural specialization, technological sophistication and economic power. In addition, modernization leads to social changes, the establishment of democratization and the devitalization of traditions (Baker, 2016, p. 2). The implementation of ICTs is seen as the most effective strategy to transmit development from the West to sub-Saharan Africa. This is based on the assumption that African communities need contact to ideas, attitudes and merits of industrialized countries in order to get successfully navigated (Alozie, Akpan-Obong & Foster, 2011, 754). Communication acts hereby as receiver and transmitter of required information (Agboli & Fusaro, 2015, 82). Given that they lead to economic development in the West, the assumption that they have the same effect in the Third World is comprehensible. However, modernity does not guarantee a high-quality life style (Obijiofor, 2015, p. 7). The modernization theory is criticized for its simplified measurement of modernization: Pursuant to it, the Gross National Product is an indicator for development. Hence, the actual distribution of wealth gets ignored. Moreover, it is not specified who profits from development and who gets penalized. The dissemination of modernity is regarded as crucial for social changes and democratization (Baker, 2016, p. 2). On this account, a combination of modern and traditional values is not given which is why developing countries fear the loss of their indigenous cultures (Thussu, 2006, pp. 44-45).

Postcolonial theory

African critics of the modernization theory doubt that a technological progress can cover the needs and wishes of people in developing countries. They are afraid of losing domestic cultures and fear a dependency on the First World (Aden, 2000, p. 73; Asiedu, 2012, p. 245). In addition, postcolonial theorists claim that the way developing countries get represented leads to the impression that modernization is indispensable for development. Due to that, local knowledges and applications get subordinated and not acknowledged (Asiedu, 2012, p.245). The postcolonial theory is a critical theory that comprises various concepts to decode political and social viewpoints of underdevelopment as well as development in a worldwide context. It directs attention to asymmetric power correlations between states and tribes (Lin, Kuo & Myers, 2015, p. 699). The term ‘postcolonial’ refers to the time after “the period of violence, conquest and racism associated with the expansion of the spheres of control and influence of a small number of Western European nations […] in the 19th and the early 20th centuries” (Jack Westwood, 2009, p. 7). During this period, colonies were tightly linked to their Western colonizers which were only interested in their own profits. Inequitable industrialization and exchange took place wherefore Third World countries became economically dependent on the West. Colonies got, for example, enslaved and raw materials were taken. Besides, cultural suppression occurred since only European values were accepted (Jack & Westwood, 2009, p. 7). Moreover, neo-colonial domination, through, for instance, new elites supported by neo-colonial bodies, established although all former colonies are independent by now. Due to the ongoing religious, racial and linguistic discriminations and the inequality between different groups of people, postcolonialism is an abiding procedure of rehabilitation and resistance. On this account, the postcolonial theory is based on European colonialism and its consequences (Ashcroft, Griffiths & Tiffin, 1995, p. 2). In addition, it also has its origins in the study Orientalism which was written by Edward Said in 1978 (Rothberg, 2013, p.367). Said investigated the construction of the Orient by analyzing how it was misrepresented within colonialist discourse. According to him, representations have the power to portray and guide the world. While European colonizers defined themselves as light and center, colonies were illustrated as incomprehensible and the dark side of civilization. The postcolonial theory does reveal this constructed relationship and depicts the unethical description of former colonized countries (Niblett, 2007, p. 2). Moreover, the theory is tightly related to Foucault’s (1980) research which states that “power/knowledge is reciprocal, mutually reinforcing relation between the codification plus transmission of knowledge and subsequently the control of conduct” (Lin, Kuo & Myers, 2015, p. 699). He argues that ideology, which is developed by people who have power, shapes the interpretation of the truth and subsequent actions. According to him, human beings adapt previously approved attitudes. Beliefs that aredissenting get branded (Lin, Kuo & Myers, 2015, p. 699). As critical theory, the postcolonial theory declines the classification of the Third and First World and challenges the erroneous belief that postcolonial is a synonym for economically underdeveloped (Ashcroft, Griffiths & Tiffin, 1995, p. 2). Furthermore, it disputes the suppressive universalism and focuses on minority discourse to give the once enslaved a voice (Niblett, 2007, pp. 2-4). Postcolonial theorists decline “the universal application of technologies, by showing how the discourse of technologies links former colonies with their colonizers and privileges western science and technology over indigenous or non-western ones” (as cited in Asiedu, 2012, p. 245). Pursuant to the theory, ICTs contribute to the silencing of indigenous knowledge and eternize the dependency of developing countries on the expertize of their former colonizers. By doing so, traditional cultures get extinguished. On this account, cultural differences have to be acknowledged and diverse interpretations as well as solutions for developmental issues need to be welcomed (Asiedu, 2012, p.245). The postcolonial theory is criticized for not being able to combine theory with practice due to the profound disparity. From this follows that the theory is only ending in itself and, paradoxically, quiets the people from developing countries it wants to stand up for (Huggan, 2013, p. 298).

Contrasting juxtaposition and theoretical application

While the modernization theory is based on the assumption that ICTs are tools which can be used for different cultural purposes to modernize and thereby develop countries, the postcolonial theory considers this as critical. With the aid of Western values, so modernization theorists argue, Third World countries can lose their traditional stunting and improve the living conditions of its populations due to economic growth and with it poverty reduction (Thussu, 2006, pp. 43-44). From a postcolonial perspective though, sustainable development cannot be achieved by adopting First World cultures. On the contrary, a decolonization has to take place and knowledges as well as attitudes from industrialized countries need to be challenged. Economic and social disparities have to diminish and cultural differences need to be acknowledged (Huggan, 2013, p. 298). As the previous research illustrates, ICTs are regarded as a potential tool for development and therewith poverty reduction in sub-Saharan Africa. Even though the modernization theory and the postcolonial theory contradict each other, both of them are viewed as relevant for this master thesis. Their application is necessary in order to investigate if mobile phones are regarded as a potential educational tool to alleviate destitution from a local point of view. As stated before, mobile phones are selected as examined ICT because they are the most common communication technology in sub-Saharan Africa. Since both theories are diversified, three aspects are selected which assist to analyze the interview replies of the Tanzanian and Zambian experts. In matters of the modernization theory, it will be investigated if the local experts view mobile phones as a potential tool for secondary school education. Given that modernization theorists argue that ICTs are crucial for transferring Western values to developing countries and for promoting development, it is important to figure out if natives notice their potentials as well. Furthermore, two aspects of the postcolonial theory will be considered: the fear of losing domestic cultures and of depending on former colonizers due to the implementation of ICTs. It is seen as important to identify whether natives regard the introduction of new technologies as threat to find out if they are willing to utilize them for developmental purposes or if they are deterred by their possible negative consequences. On this account, the interview replies will be analyzed with the aid of these three theoretical aspects. The application of both theories is essential to investigate how ICTs are viewed and if the implementation of mobile phones as an educational tool in secondary schools in Tanzania and Zambia is justified from local perspectives.

1 Introduction 
1.1 Relevance of the thesis
1.2 Thesis outline
2 Aim and research questions 
3 Background information 
3.1 Poverty as first SDG
3.2 ICT: Mobile phones
3.3 Sub-Saharan Africa: Tanzania and Zambia
4 Previous research
4.1 Potential impacts
4.2 ICT4D
4.3 Access and usage
4.4 Mobile phone usage in education
4.5 Research gap
5 Theoretical frame and concepts 
5.1 Theoretical background
5.2 Modernization theory
5.3 Postcolonial theory
5.4 Contrasting juxtaposition and theoretical application
6 Method and material 
6.1 Semi-structured expert interviews
6.2 Data collection
6.3 Material
6.4 Comparison as analytical tool
6.5 Discussion of the method
7 Analysis
7.1 Definition of poverty
7.2 Education as possibility to escape destitution
7.3 Access to mobile phones
7.4 Current role of mobile phones within secondary school education
7.5 Mobile phones as a potential tool for education
7.6 Mobile phones as a threat for traditions and cultures
7.7 Dependency on foreign countries
8 Conclusion
8.1 Summary and discussion of the interview findings
8.2 Answers to the research questions
8.3 Limitations and suggestions for further research

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Mobile phones as an educational tool in sub-Saharan Africa.