Poisonous plants of veterinary and economic importance in southern Africa

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Yellow Tulp Poisoning

Poisoning of livestock by plants is a major problem of both veterinary and economic importance in South Africa (Penrith et al., 2015). About 600 species of plants have been reported to be poisonous to livestock in southern Africa. Economic losses in the region of 105 million Rand, were reported to be incurred, due to phytotoxins and mycotoxicoses annually in South Africa (Kellerman et al., 1996). This was a conservative estimate, as the study did not take into account losses from poor production, reproduction, veterinary costs incurred, abortions, non-utilisation of noxious fields and the decrease in value of infested camps. Among all poisonings due to plants and fungi in South Africa, cardiac glycoside toxicosis causes 33% and 10% mortality in cattle and small stock, espectively. Tulp (Iridaceae) poisoning is the most important (Kellerman et al., 1996), followed by slangkop (Hyacinthaceae) poisoning and intoxication with succulent plakkies (Crassulaceae) Kellerman et al., 2005).
Moraea pallida Bak. (Fig. 1.1) also known as yellow tulp, is considered the most significant (Steyn, 1928), among other poisonous tulp species, such as Moraea miniata (Fig. 1.3), M. flaccida, M. polystachya (Fig.1.4) and M. bipartita. Yellow tulp is most incriminated in poisoning, as it has an extensive distribution and is found under different conditions, in nearly all provinces in South Africa (Vahrmeijer, 1981). Except for the Western Cape Province, yellow tulp occurs in all other provinces of South Africa, in addition to the neighbouring countries, Lesotho and Namibia (Fig. 1.2). Yellow tulp also colonizes disturbed areas, such as trampled camps and in cultivated lands. Among livestock, cattle is the most frequently affected species (Kellerman et al., 1996). All tulp species harbour non-cumulative bufadienolides causing acute intoxication (Kellerman et al., 2005). Moraea polystachya has a relatively wide distribution (Fig. 1.5) which makes it very important also.
Affected animals show involvement of the respiratory, cardiovascular, gastrointestinal and nervous systems. There may be general apathy, weakness of the hindquarters (Fig. 1.7), tremor, respiratory distress and occasionally bruxism and groaning. Tachycardia, various arrhythmias, rumen atony, bloat and diarrhoea may also be observed. Death may occur due to cardiac arrest, within 24- 48 h following exposure or animals may recover within three to four days (Steyn, 1928; Naudé, 1977; Strydom and Joubert, 1983). At necropsy, no pathognomonic lesions are observed. Hyperaemia of the intestinal mucosa, subepi- and subendocardial haemorrhages and pulmonary congestion and oedema and congestion of viscera may be observed (Naudé and Potgieter, 1971).

CHAPTER ONE  INTRODUCTION
1.1 Yellow Tulp Poisoning
1.2 Justification for the study .
1.3 Aim
1.4 Objectives
CHAPTER TWO  LITERATURE REVIEW 
2.1 Poisonous plants of veterinary and economic importance in southern Africa
2.1.1 Important cardiac glycoside containing plants .
2.1.2 Cardenolides and bufadienolides from plant sources
2.2 Bufadienolide-containing plants causing acute intoxication
2.2.1 Moraea pallida.
2.2.2 Toxic principle of Moraea pallida
2.2.3 Mechanism of action of cardiac glycosides .
2.2.4 The sodium potassium adenosine triphosphatase (Na+K+-ATPase) .
2.3 Management of cardiac glycoside plant poisoning in domestic stock .
2.4 Cytotoxicity testing
2.5 Response to lethal cell injury .
2.6 Immunogenicity
2.7 Immunology of vaccination .
CHAPTER THREE  CONJUGATION OF BUFADIENOLIDES TO PROTEIN
Preface
3.1 Introduction .
3.2 Materials and Methods
3.3 Results
3.3.1. Conjugation of bufadienolides to protein
3.4 Discussion
CHAPTER FOUR RABBIT VACCINATION TRIALS AND CROSS-REACTIVITY STUDIES 
4.1 Introduction .
4.2 Materials and Methods .
4.3 Results …
4.4 Discussion .
CHAPTER FIVE . SHEEP VACCINATION WITH EPOXYSCILLIROSIDINE-KLH
5.1 Introduction .
5.2 Materials and Methods
5.3 Results .
5.4 Discussion .
CHAPTER SIX  EPOXYSCILLIROSIDINE INDUCED CYTOTOXICITY AND ULTRASTRUCTURAL CHANGES IN A RAT EMBRYONIC CARDIOMYOCYTE (H9c2) CELL LINE 
CHAPTER SEVEN  IN VITRO NEUTRALIZATION STUDIES IN A RAT EMBRYONIC CARDIOMYOCYTE (H9c2) CELL LINE EXPOSED TO EPOXYSCILLIROSIDINE
CHAPTER EIGHT  GENERAL DISCUSSION – CONCLUSIONS – PROPOSED FUTURE RESEARCH 

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