Psychological Skills Training (PST)

Get Complete Project Material File(s) Now! »

CHAPTER 2: EXTRA-PERSONAL CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE DEVELOPMENT AND IMPLEMENTATION OF INDIVIDUALISED GROUP MENTAL TOUGHNESS PROGRAMMES

This manuscript has been prepared according to the editorial guidelines of the Journal of Applied Sport Psychology.
Tables and figures have been placed in text.

Abstract

The present study examined the results of two studies that focused on the development and implementation of mental toughness programmes for two cricket teams at a high school in the Eastern Cape; considering the extra-personal factors that influence the development and implementation of mental toughness programmes. Both studies made use of an Action Research framework, specifically the Organizational Development Process Model (McLean, 2006). Extra-personal factors such as motivational climate, social support, seasonal demands, competition level, and team stability emerged as vital to consider when planning mental toughness programmes. Further, the results suggest mental toughness programmes for school level cricketers should be age appropriate and highly structured, there should be group and individual learning opportunities, and focus on personal development. Extra-personal influences were found to function in creating environments conducive to both the development and maintenance of mental toughness.

Context

Mental toughness is an important construct in sport psychology and is widely believed to play a part in performances, and notably in consistent performances, of people in a variety of sports and at all levels (Bull, Shambrook, James, & Brooks, 2005; Golby & Sheard, 2004; Golby, Sheard, & van Wersch, 2007; Gucciardi, Gordon, & Dimmock, 2008a; Gucciardi, Gordon, & Dimmock, 2009a; Gucciardi, Gordon, & Dimmock, 2009b; Sheard, Golby, & van Wersch, 2009). Considerable effort over the past decade has been dedicated to conceptualising the construct and working towards developing a more widely accepted definition. While there have been a number of contrasting views as to what constitutes this multidimensional construct, progress has been made in terms of a general understanding of what mental toughness is and components that constitute the construct of mental toughness. More research is needed, and is ongoing, and such research that is focused on developing and implementing mental toughness programmes from the perspective of participants (especially collaborating with participants as co-investigators) could assist researchers in identifying positive and negative aspects of these programmes. Research such as the current study might contribute to the generation of theory in regard to particular contexts, and in so doing, could improve understanding of the construct of mental toughness and how best to assist sports people and performers in maximising mental toughness to improve performances. Methodologically, the applied nature of the research process may benefit from a participative approach such as Action Research, where the method becomes part of the intervention, with the researcher collaborating with the participants, allowing examination of the process of developing and implementing mental toughness programmes.
While anecdotal evidence suggests that natural learning experiences and life adversities contribute to the development of mental toughness, Connaughton, Wadey, Hanton, and Jones (2008) contend that developing mental toughness is a long-term process and is related to aspects associated with the prevailing motivational climate, thus reinforcing the notion that mental toughness is learned. Similarly, Gould, Diffenbach, and Moffett (2002) research with elite Olympic athletes supported findings of Bloom (Bloom, 1985; Cutietta, 1985) and Csikszentmihalyi, Rathunde, and Whalen (1997), that the psychological development of top athletes occurs over a long period of time and is influenced by numerous factors, which include teaching and modelling, with a strong support system necessary for this process to be successful. Connaughton et al. (2008) furthered the argument of a long-term process concluding that mental toughness “encompasses a multitude of underlying mechanisms” (p. 83), operating in a combined manner. They concluded that these mechanisms related to characteristics associated with motivational climate (e.g. enjoyment, mastery, autonomy), interactions with individuals (i.e., coaches, parents, friends, family, senior athletes, sport psychologists, team-mates), experiences in and outside sport (all of which relate to external or extra-personal aspects that influence the individual), as well as psychological skills and strategies, and an insatiable desire and internalized motives to succeed (which relate to internal or intra-personal aspects). Learning then becomes an important way for mental toughness to be acquired through direct methods, such as teaching or emphasising psychological lessons, and indirect methods, such as modelling, interpersonal interactions, and/or creating particular motivational climates conducive to developing mental toughness (whether knowingly or not). These are often referred to by researchers in the mental toughness literature as the environment or environmental factors (Bull et al., 2005; Connaughton et al., 2008; Gould et al., 2002; MacNamara, Button, & Collins, 2010); factors in the external surroundings of the person, or extra-personal factors, that influence their learning and development, which, in turn, contribute to the development and the maintenance of intra-personal aspects such as mental toughness.
Psychological Skills Training (PST) contributes to the development of mental toughness, possibly by developing skills that enhance and encourage self-regulation, task-involvement and self-referenced criteria for success, which lead to the development of a task-involving, positive motivational climate that fosters cohesion and mental toughness by enhancing psychological and life skills that contribute to athletic performance and promotion of personal growth (Duda & Whitehead, 1998; Gucciardi et al., 2009a; Gucciardi et al., 2009b; Gucciardi, Mallett, Hanrahan, & Gordon, 2011; Gucciardi, Jackson, Hodge, Anthony,& Brooke, 2015; Johnson, Hrycaiko, Johnson, & Halas, 2004). A seven-week PST programme conducted by Sheard and Golby (2006) that focused on relaxation, concentration, goal-setting, visualization, and thought stopping found positive effects on a range of positive psychological constructs which included mental toughness. Gucciardi et al. (2009a; 2009b) conducted research evaluating the effectiveness of two separate psychological skills training programmes; one a more traditional mental skills programme (focusing on self-regulation, arousal regulation, attention control, self-efficacy, mental rehearsal, and ideal performance state) and the other a programme that focused on keys to mental toughness identified by Gucciardi et al. (2008b). The mixed-methods research consisted of both quantitative and qualitative data collection and the researchers found that both were equally effective in enhancing the mental toughness of youth-aged Australian footballers in comparison to a control group.
Bull et al. (2005) developed a model of mental toughness that emphasised the importance of the environment on the development of three categories of mental toughness, namely, tough character (personality characteristics), tough attitudes (which allow for effective exploitation of characteristics), and tough thinking (thought patterns associated with winning in competition). The researchers focused on cricket and argued that it is a sport requiring “chronic” mental toughness for a competitor to reach the top and maintain that world class level of performance (Bull et al., 2005). Cricket players are required to bat, bowl, and field for long periods of time and a game can last from three hours (for a limited 20-overs game) to as long as five full days (in the case of Test cricket). The competitive cricket matches occur frequently and often in very hot conditions. An individual scoring 100 runs can take six hours or more of intense concentration and one lapse in concentration can result in the person batting losing his/her wicket. A number of poor performances in succession can result in the loss of a place on the team, a loss of self-esteem, and/or a potential loss of income for a professional cricketer. Bull et al. (2005) identified the environment as providing the foundation for the development of mental toughness on two key levels, namely, upbringing and transition into an appropriate cricket environment (both extra-personal factors). The researchers identified a number of environmental factors that contribute to developing a suitable environment for mental toughness development. During their formative years, parental influence, “childhood background”, and setbacks were important contributors to the development of mental toughness (Bull et al., 2005). The authors further suggested that the environment (or extra-personal factors as described in the current research) is the most appropriate area to focus resources, and interventions because of its importance in developing mental toughness. An interpretation of Bull et al.’s findings could be that the development of tough minded qualities, all seemingly intra-personally rooted, are elicited and, to some extent, sustained by optimal external conditions. There is a need to refine our understanding of optimal extra-personal conditions in the development of mental toughness to when and how these factors operate in a player’s development (Clough, Earle, & Sewell, 2002).
In research examining the development and maintenance of mental toughness, Connaughton et al. (2008), used the same categories to subdivide their participants’ careers as Bloom’s (1985) three career phases: early (mean age 8.3 years, s= 1.7), middle (11.1 years, s= 1.9) and later years (13.7 years, s= 2.1). They found that, starting in the early years and continuing into the middle and later years, observations of older, elite performers in both training and competitive environments, advice from parents, coaches and other important figures, and effective leadership were instrumental in nurturing motivation and an appropriate motivational climate that was rewarding, challenging, and enjoyable, which helped the athlete develop a sense of discipline and work ethic (Connaughton et al., 2008; Durand-Bush & Salmela, 2002; Gould et al., 2002). Overcoming critical incidents was considered important in the development of mental toughness (Connaughton et al., 2008), which resonates with the findings of Bull et al. (2005) regarding the importance of enduring setbacks. The challenge as researchers is to identify the role of these setbacks and incidents in providing players with the required skills and abilities, and develop ways of developing these skills without having to go through those experiences, perhaps through the use of techniques like simulation, role play and imagery.
Connaughton et al. (2008) found social support networks inside and outside of sport helped to maintain mental toughness both directly and indirectly. Psychological skills were also shown to maintain mental toughness, with the use of techniques like self-talk, imagery, cognitive reconstruction, pre-performance and pre-race routines, and goal-setting, impacting on levels of confidence and anxiety, while without continued practice the effectiveness of these skills and mental toughness in general, could decline (Clough et al., 2002; Connaughton et al., 2008; Gucciardi & Gordon, 2008). These are initially externally induced but develop into internalised behaviour patterns that need to continuously be both internally and externally reinforced. The research on mental toughness emphasises the importance of the right motivational issues and motivational climate for the development of mental toughness, especially in youth athletes (Crust, 2008), and more researchers are arguing that emphasis on enjoyment and mastery are integral in developing mental toughness, long-term participation in sport, improved performance, and intrinsic motivation (Connaughton & Hanton, 2009;Crust, 2008; Duda et al., 2013; Duda, 2013; Gucciardi et al., 2008b; Gucciardi et al., 2015; Hodge, Henry, & Smith, 2014). Research has shown that, in the face of challenging tasks, intrinsic motivation tends to decrease in areas such as children’s perceived competence (Eccles, Roeser, Wigfield, & Freedman-Doan, 1999; J. G. Nicholls, 1978; Stipek & Iver, 1989), pursuit of learning goals (e.g., Anderman & Midgley, 1997; Maehr & Anderman, 1993; Midgley, Anderman, & Hicks, 1995), valuing of effort (e.g., Covington, 1984), and mastery behaviours (e.g., Rholes, Blackwell, Jordan, & Walters, 1980). Interestingly, research by Carol Dweck and others into incremental and entity self-theories suggests that those with incremental theories of self (or growth mindsets) often show increased effort in the face of many of these challenging tasks (Blackwell, Trzesniewski, & Dweck, 2007; Dweck, Chiu, & Hong, 1995a; Dweck, Chiu, & Hong, 1995b; Dweck, 2007; Dweck, 2017; Levy, Stroessner, & Dweck, 1998; Mangels, Butterfield, Lamb, Good, & Dweck, 2006). Intrinsic motivation is positively correlated with performance and achievement, whilst extrinsic motivation remains reasonably constant and is general negatively correlated with achievement and performance over the long term (Lepper, Corpus, & Iyengar, 2005).

Research base for the present study

The current research paper focuses briefly on describing two separate research studies in which mental toughness programmes were developed and implemented for an under 15A cricket team and a 1st XI cricket team respectively. The extra-personal contributions to the development and implementation of individualised group mental toughness programmes identified in these research projects will be presented and the importance of these contributions to the development of mental toughness programme will be considered. Both studies made use of an Action Research framework and incorporated Bull et al.’s (2005) model of mental toughness in order to assist the players develop their mental toughness, with the aim to contribute to the theoretical and practical understanding of developing and implementing mental toughness programmes in a school-level cricketing context. To achieve this, both studies documented the process of developing and implementing mental toughness programmes for school level cricketers and evaluated the perceptions of the respective participants regarding the value of the programmes. Youth sport in SA typically occurs within a very competitive school context, with club sport in most cases only occurring after completion of school.
The Action Research framework in both studies made use of McLean’s (2006) Organisational Development Process (ODP) model of Action Research to guide the process in the development and implementation of the mental toughness programmes. Action Research allows the researchers to make use of the action and reflection cycle to incorporate theory and practice in a participatory framework that allows the participants to be partners in the process of constructing the research (Reason & Bradbury, 2008). The benefit of this approach is that it allows for the development of both theory and practice (McNiff & Whitehead, 2006), because the method becomes part of the intervention. Such processes are aimed at practical outcomes and reflection on these processes provide opportunities to develop new forms of understanding and contribute to the existing knowledge base. This is very useful in sport psychology because the focus is on making positive changes in the lives of participants, while systematically recording and incorporating outcomes over time, in so doing, constantly contributing to the development of theory.
In this paper, the aspects of psychological environment discussed by authors such as Bull et al. (2005), Gould et al. (2002), and Gucciardi et al. (2008; 2008a; 2009; 2009a; 2012; Gucciardi et al., 2015) will be incorporated under the term “extra-personal” to refer to contributions or conditions because the term environment is a holistic construct that includes context, individual, community, coach, and family, as well as a range of other aspects that include aspects like ecology, computers, and outdoor settings.
Table 1 outlines the projects conducted by McInerney (2010) and Pattison (2011), which were conducted independently of one another. Both were conceptualised and supervised by the principal researcher as part of a larger research project into mental toughness in cricket (of which the current paper forms part), with this phase of the larger project designed to provide useful research opportunities for post-graduate students in sport psychology and to contribute to the discourse on extra-personal influences in developing mental toughness.
Integrative analytical procedure to identify extra-personal aspects associated with the development and implementation of a mental toughness programme
The current article aims to analyse the findings of the two research projects detailed in Table 1 with the purpose of addressing the following question:
What insights can be gained in regard to the extra-personal contributions from the development and implementation of two separate mental toughness programmes, tailored exclusively to the needs of the 1st XI and under 15A cricket team members respectively from a high school in the Eastern Cape?
The two studies presented in Table 1 describe the development and implementation of mental toughness programmes for two school level cricket teams, namely, the under 15A and 1st XI teams from the same school in the Eastern Cape. Both studies made use of Action Research frameworks to document the process and, in so doing, contribute to the advancement of theory relating to developing and implementing mental toughness programmes for cricketers. Both programmes relied primarily on Psychological Skills Training (PST), which has been shown to improve mental toughness (Gucciardi et al., 2009b) and the researchers also introduced extra-personal (environmental) factors, in line with the suggestions of Connaughton et al. (2008) and then Bull et al.’s (2005) discussion of a ‘winning environment’, which was explained as an environment that is conducive to developing mental toughness and one that athletes need to make a conscious effort at creating. Improving team spirit, team cohesion, and team chemistry influences and is influenced by the motivational climate that contributes to creating a culture that is conducive to winning. Cohesion is very important in the team environment and a lack of cohesion in a team, especially if there is social exclusion, can lead to impairment of self-regulation (Baumeister, DeWall, Ciarocco, & Twenge, 2005). The findings from the two studies presented in Table 1 support the holistic nature of developing and implementing mental toughness programmes for cricketers and highlight the importance of, empowering, extra-personal aspects in developing mental toughness, and the challenges arising when they are less prominent or dis-empowering, thus supporting previous research (Bull et al., 2005; Connaughton et al., 2008; MacNamara et al., 2010). The extra-personal aspects observed influencing the programmes in the two studies reflected the prominence and importance of extra-personal factors, constituted by motivational climate, interactions with others, and experiences in and outside sport, when developing and implementing the mental toughness training programmes for these young cricketers (Connaughton et al., 2008).
Training mental aspects of performance by means of exposure to PST has been shown to help athletes improve their mental toughness (Gucciardi et al., 2009a) and also assists in creating a winning attitude and a winning environment (Bull et al., 2005). In order to develop effective mental toughness, athletes should start with the correct attitude and correct state of mind, that is, intra-personal characteristics that contribute to the development of the mental toughness categories Bull et al. (2005) called Tough Character, Tough Attitude, and Tough Thinking and, in turn, an empowering motivational climate. Attending to extra-personal aspects (motivational climate, motivational issues, interactions with others, and experiences in and outside sport) assist in creating a winning environment, winning culture, and a cohesive team. This echoes former javelin world record holder Steve Backley’s (1996) concept of the ‘winning mind’, which is indicative of a mindset that maximises opportunities and enables the person to maximise their chances of success; and is remarkably similar to the original definition of mental toughness suggested by Loehr (1986). Carol Dweck (2007) identified an incremental self-theory (or phrased growth mindset for popular consumption) as beneficial in approaching situations where one is always striving to reach optimal performance potential, regardless of the outcome of the competition (Blackwell et al., 2007; Dweck et al., 1995a; Dweck et al., 1995b; Dweck, 2017; Elliott & Dweck, 1988; Levy et al., 1998; Mangels et al., 2006). This would undoubtedly be beneficial before, or at the beginning of, a mental skills training programme or mental toughness programme, in order to maximise the effectiveness of such a programme. It is a focus on learning, always giving one hundred percent, and making use of appropriate or adapted strategies to enhance learning. Dweck’s presentation of incremental and entity self-theories (growth and fixed mindsets) is based on her research into implicit theories of self and she called a person who aligns more with an entity theory in certain situations a person with a fixed mindset, and a person who aligns more with an incremental theory in certain situations a person with a growth mindset. People with a growth mindset see intelligence and ability as malleable, believing that they can be learned and improved upon; an idea supported by findings relating to the neuroplasticity of the brain (Demarin, Morovic, & Bene, 2014). Effort and constantly working to evaluate and improve strategies for learning and performance are at the heart of a growth mindset, which could be considered a winning mind, or at the very least, a foundation for the development of one. Combined findings from the two studies in Table 1, suggests a cyclical process in which intra-personal aspects (e.g., PST, mental toughness training, and developing a growth mindset) influence the development of mental toughness and extra-personal aspects conducive to performing, while extra-personal aspects, in turn, influence the person in a manner that enhances intra-personal aspects and maintains mental toughness and psychological skills.

Action Research

When deciding to make use of an Action Research framework, literature suggested it would allow the researchers to focus on the team and work with group processes and education in order to influence the extra-personal factors, while being flexible enough to allow one-on-one interaction with the participants (McNiff & Whitehead, 2006; Reason & Bradbury, 2008; Reason, 2006). Psychological Skills Training would then need to be tailored to both the team as a whole and the individual members of the team, making use of group work in the education phase (Weinberg & Gould, 2015) and using both group and individual techniques in subsequent phases. Using group settings to address the education phase of PST (Weinberg& Gould, 2015) reduced the time each player was required to commit to the programme and both the use of Action Research and the mental toughness programme improved the cohesion of the team according to those who attended. An Action Research approach proved to be useful because the research method formed part of the intervention in that the group focus required the researchers and the teams to focus on group processes which assist in developing cohesion. The process-orientated focus of Action Research incorporates well with the principles of sport psychology research and maintaining focus in the present moment. It was, however, important to clarify the role and timing of the group activities so that the participants were aware of what they were being asked to do and why. This provided the structure that the participants seemed to require and enabled the clarification of the link between group activity and individual work. A number of authors have identified cohesion (in some form or another) as a component of mental toughness. Fourie and Potgieter (2001) listed “team unity” as one of their mental toughness characteristics, while Thelwell et al.(2005) referred to ‘striving for involvement’, which can be closely linked to cohesion and unity, and Gucciardi et al. (2008b) identified “team success” and “team role responsibility” which are also linked to cohesion.
Making use of a group strategy to assess the players’ perspectives initially and conduct the education phases of the interventions appeared to be most beneficial to the group of players who attended the sessions regularly. Some of these players identified that team spirit, cohesion and chemistry developed from attending the programme sessions regularly as part of a group more than it would have if the programme was implemented only on an individual basis.

CONTENTS
List of Appendices
DECLARATION
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
SUMMARY
Key Terms
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
Introducing sport psychology and mental toughness research
Defining Mental Toughness
Characteristics of Mental Toughness
Assessing Mental Toughness
Models of Mental Toughness
Mental Toughness Development
The early years
The middle years.
The later years.
Maintaining mental toughness
Motivational climate
Aims.
References
CHAPTER 2: EXTRA-PERSONAL CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE DEVELOPMENT AND IMPLEMENTATION OF INDIVIDUALISED GROUP MENTAL TOUGHNESS PROGRAMMES
Abstract
Context
Research base for the present study
Integrative analytical procedure to identify extra-personal aspects associated with the development and implementation of a mental toughness programme
Action Research
Psychological Skills Training (PST)
Extra-personal factors involving the coach and social support
Extra-personal factors involving knowledge of sport psychology and timing of the programmes
Conclusion
References
CHAPTER 3: PSYCHOMETRIC PROPERTIES OF TWO MENTAL TOUGHNESS INVENTORIES IN A SOUTH AFRICAN SAMPLE
Abstract
Context
Method
Participants
Instruments
Procedure
Data analyses
Results and Discussion
Psychological Performance Inventory (PPI-A)
Sports Mental Toughness Questionnaire (SMTQ)
Athlete Burnout Questionnaire (ABQ)
Correlations: Convergent and Discriminant validity
Conclusion
References
CHAPTER 4: MENTAL TOUGHNESS IN CRICKET: DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS OF SOUTH AFRICAN CRICKETERS ON THE SMTQ AND THE PPI-A
Abstract
Context
Method
Participants
Administration
Data analysis
Results and Discussion
Sports Mental Toughness Questionnaire (SMTQ)
Psychological Performance Inventory-Alternative (PPI-A)
Conclusion
References
CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSION
Lack of awareness and overestimation of psychological skills
Developmental/Age related findings
Ethnicity
Other demographics that hold implications
Use of Action Research methodological approach
Findings on measurement and the nature thereof
References
GET THE COMPLETE PROJECT