SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION (SLA) AND USES OF LANGUAGE

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CHAPTER 2 SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION (SLA) AND USES OF LANGUAGE

Introduction

In Zimbabwean primary schools, the widespread practice that I have observed is that pupils use their mother tongue as the medium of instruction to learn ES and other subjects from Early Childhood Development (ECD) up to grade 3. From grade 4 up to grade 7, English becomes the LoLT in class. But for most pupils, this is a second or third language which they only come across for the first time when they start going to school (Shumba, 1999:5). In this study, I am arguing that these primary school pupils are not yet proficient enough in this language to use it as their LoLT ES, bearing in mind that most of these learners are getting their first exposure to English when they start going to school.
I conducted this study to investigate problems that arise as a result of using ESL to learn ES at primary school level in Zimbabwean schools. In this chapter, I am reviewing studies that have already been conducted in Zimbabwe and other countries on the use of ESL as a medium of instruction at school in general and in Science lessons in particular. The issue of language policy in Zimbabwe is also reviewed. The theoretical framework that informed this study will also be given. I will also chronicle and interogate local and international events that are relevant to this study. In the process, focus will be given on the most recent findings in this area of study. Gaps or contradictions existing among these findings, and any other related issues, will also be reviewed.

Theoretical Framework

My theoretical framework is meant to give me a strong scientific research base and provide a pillar of support for the whole thesis. This theoretical framework will also provide the scientific justification for my thesis. It will reveal that this investigation is not just coming out of the blues, but that it is grounded in and based on scientific theories. The ensuing conceptual framework and literature review will serve as its backbone and help to further analyse existing findings that will help to bridge the gap in this study.

Research design

The theoretical framework underlying the focus of my study is the phenomenological case study. Phenomenology and case study are types of research methods that are used in qualitative research. The main differences between the two is that case study is an in-depth and detailed investigation of a single event, situation or an individual over a period of time, whereas phenomenology is a study that is designed to understand the subjective, lived experiences and perspectives of all the participants. The two methods are analysed separately to give a better understanding of what is meant by phenomenological case study in sections 2.2.1.1 and 2.2.1.2.

Case study research

Yin (1984:23) defines a case study as an empirical inquiry that investigates a contemporary phenomenon within its real-life context; when the boundaries between phenomenon and context are not clearly evident; and in which multiple sources of evidence are used. In other words, it is an in-depth and detailed investigation of the development of a single event, situation, practice, problem, anomaly, an individual or an organisation over a period of time (Yin, 2014:103; Burawoy, 2009:57; Stake, 2005: 454). Yin, Merriam and Stake (2015:136) observe that a case study is one of the most frequently used qualitative research methodologies. Case studies are often used to explore and unearth complex issues such as social issues like corruption, prostitution, drug addiction, unemployment and poverty. They can also be used to examine certain practices in education, medicine, agriculture and many other fields. So, a case study can also be defined as a research strategy, an empirical inquiry that investigates a phenomenon within its real-life context (Ridder, 2017:281).
In a good case study, the researchers start by identifying and defining the research problem; then they select the cases. The advantages of a case study are easily detected in its detailed description and analysis that leads to a clearer understanding of how things happen the way they do and why. The researchers then decide the suitable techniques for data collection and analysis. In case study research, random sampling does not work. Researchers rely on information-rich cases. Every sample can be unique. There is no sample that represents a larger population. Therefore, purposive sampling is the way to go in case studies. Researchers choose the case because it is of interest (Stake, 2005:454). They can also choose it for theoretical reasons (Eisenhardt & Graebner, 2007:27). After identification of the case, researchers go into the field, that is the natural setting, to collect data, evaluate and analyse it.
Yin (2014:103) stresses the point that interviews are the most important sources of data collection but considers other sources of qualitative data as well. In this, this study, I relied heavily on in-depth face-to-face interviews as one of my methods of data collection. Yin (2014:134) goes on to explain that data triangulation is designed to narrow problems of construct validity because multiple sources of data provide several measures of the same phenomenon (Cohen & Crabtree, 2006:1). Case data can lead to the identification of patterns and relationships, and this results in the creation, extension, or testing of a theory (Gomme, Hammersley & Foster, 2000:13). Data collection methods in a case study are observations, questionnaires, interviews, document analysis and focus group discussions. This study utilised all these methods, except questionnaires. Case study researchers usually triangulate data as part of their data collection tactic, resulting in a detailed case description (Ridder, 2016:11; Stake, 2005:454; Dooley, 2002:346; Burns, 2000:459).

Types of Case Study

There are several types of case study and their uses depend on the researcher’s type of study (Hayes, Kyer & Weber, 2015:8). Some of these types of case study are briefly described below:
• Illustrative case study (providing narrative accounts)
These types of case study are usually descriptive in nature. They make use of one or two instances of an event to show the existing situation. Such case studies help to make what is not familiar, and they also help to clarify the topic in question. In other words, such case studies help to demystify cases (Hayes, Kyer & Weber, 2015:8).
• Exploratory case study (as a pilot to other studies or research questions)
These are pilot case studies that are conducted ahead of the main investigation. Their purpose is to locate areas that need to be improved, e.g. research instruments, before carrying out the main study. The main disadvantage of the exploratory case study is that researchers can be satisfied by the initial findings from the pilot study and proceed to release those initial findings prematurely as the real findings of the study (Hayes, Kyer & Weber, 2015:10).
• Cumulative case study
These case studies are normally used to compile information that is collected from different sites at varied times. The main issue concerning such studies is to utilise the findings from 21 those studies and generalise them without having to repeat the studies in order to save resources like money and time (Hayes, Kyer & Weber, 2015:17).
• Critical instance case study
These case studies examine one or more sites in order to investigate a situation of unique interest without any need to generalise findings. This method is useful for answering cause and effect questions (Hayes, Kyer & Weber, 2015:12).
All research designs have their strengths and limitations. The merits of a particular design make it suitable for selecting it as the most appropriate one for addressing a particular research problem. In this study, the case study is the best design for answering my research questions. Its strengths outweigh its limitations. These strengths and limitations are analysed in 2.2.1.1.2.

Strengths and limitations of case study

Strengths of case studies

There are a number of advantages in using case studies (Yin, 1984: 15).
• They help to simplify complicated concepts (Zaidah, 2007:1);
• They expose the participants to real life situations, which is almost impossible to achieve with other designs (Robson, 2002:178; Zaidah, 2007:4).
• They help in adding value to the participants through discussions on concrete subjects (Zaidah, 2007:4);
• They improve analytical thinking, communication, developing tolerance for divergent views on the same subject, ability to defend one’s point of view with logic;
• They enhance team work for the participants, making them efficient over time;
• The many solutions which come out of the cases act as ready references when similar problems arise (Cohen, Manion & Morrison, 2011:293);
• They allow a lot of detailed information to be collected, which cannot be easily obtained through other research designs Zaidah, 2007:5);
• Data collected is a lot richer and is of greater depth than can be found through other methods since their data collection methods include direct observation and interviews (Yin, 2009:11);
• They can be easily conducted where large samples of similar participants are not readily available; and
• They can help researchers to adapt new ideas and produce new hypotheses that can be tested later (Cohen, Manion & Morrison, 2011: 293).
From the above list, it can noted that the case study method has many advantages that make it a very suitable method for conducting different types of research. It can be employed in both quantitative and qualitative designs.

Limitations of case studies

Despite these advantages, case studies have received criticisms (Yin, 1984:21).
• The researcher’s biased views can influence the direction of the findings and conclusions (Yin, 1984:21).
• Data collected cannot be generalised to the wider population (Denzin & Lincoln, 2011:304). But it can be argued that formal generalisation is overvalued as a source of scientific development; the force of a single example is underestimated (Flyvbjerg, 2016:13). Denzin and Lincoln (2011:304) also argue that it depends on the case one is speaking of, and how it is chosen.
• Chances of bias in data collection are higher and this can influence results more than in other designs (Denzin & Lincoln, 2011:309). Leedy (1997:219) points out that in any research, data bias cannot be avoided. He suggests that what is important is to remember to acknowledge the effect that bias may have had in distorting them when formulating conclusions.
• It might be difficult to find an appropriate case study to suit all subjects; and
• It consumes more time when compared with other designs. They are often labelled as being too long, difficult to conduct and producing a massive amount of documentation (Yin, 1984:21).
From the above list, it can be noted that this method, like any other method, also has some limitations but, despite that, it continues to be a very useful method used in many spheres of life.
Many case studies can last three to six months but they can continue for years (Herrick, 2016:1). To avoid waisting time, Herfors (2016: 10) offers the following suggestions: The researcher may need to have some special knowledge in the topic that is researched. In this particular study, I had the special knowledge Herfors is alluding to since I had been in this field for more than three decades. There should be a timeline for all the steps to be taken, including a deadline for everything. Reaching out to the right participants can also be a time saver. These participants need to be given information on why and how they will be involved in the study. A timetable that suits both participants and researcher should be put in place. Yin (2007:111) also stresses that it is important to be prepared before the process of data collection. He identifies 5 important attributes of organised case study researchers as follows: They should have the ability to ask the right questions and interpret them correctly. They should be good listeners and be objective in all situations. They should be adaptable to new situations. They should have a clear idea of the issues being studied. Lastly, they should not be influenced by warped or distorted perceptions.
Advantages of case study research far outweigh its disadvantages. Because of these strengths, case study is a particularly appealing design for applied fields of study, such as education, social work, administration and health. This list is not exhaustive. Case study can be successfully implemented to bring about change and improve practice. This method has proved to be particularly useful for studying educational innovations, evaluating programmes and informing policy. In this study, it is intended to inform policy.

Phenomenology.

Denzin & Lincoln, (2011:16) define phenomenology as a complex system of ideas associated with the works of Edmund Husserl, Martin Heidegger, Jean-Paul Sartre, Maurice Merleau-Ponty and Alfred Schutz.
Phenomenological research involves trying to understand the essence of a phenomenon by examining the views of people who have experienced that phenomenon (Leedy, 1997:161). As the researcher works with rich descriptive data, common themes begin to emerge (Kleiman, 2004:7). The term ‘phenomenology’ was derived from the word ‘phenomenon’ (Smith, 2013:1). In my phenomenological case study, the phenomenon that I am interested in studying is the experience of Zimbabwean primary school pupils whose L1 is not English during ES lessons.
Phenomenology is interested in the individual experiences of people (Starks and Trinidad, 2007:1375). It usually involves lengthy periods of field work, in-depth interviews with subjects, and sometimes researchers will interview the same subject several times to get a full picture of their experience with the phenomenon (Yilmaz, 2013:312). In this case, I interviewed primary school pupils whose L1 is not English, to see how they coped with learning ES using ESL. I also interviewed stake holders like the learners’ teachers, to get their opinions on this issue. The parents of the participating pupils were involved by way of granting assent to permit their children to participate in this study. Besides interviewing people, I also observed pupils learning ES in their classrooms following their normal timetables, i.e. in their normal setting. Besides interviews and observations, other data collection methods that I used were focus group discussions and document analysis.
After the interviews are done, a phenomenological researcher will look back through them, searching for patterns (Hancock, Windridge and Ockleford, 2007:17). Maybe most of the learners talked about how they struggled to comprehend what their teachers say during ES lessons. That’s a pattern, and it can tell me something about the learners’ proficiency in the medium of instruction. Essentially, phenomenological research is looking for the universal nature of an experience.

CHAPTER 1  INTRODUCTION AND OVERVIEW
1.1 Background to the study
1.2 The research question
1.3 Sub-questions
1.4 The aims and objectives of the study
1.5 Research design and methodology
1.6 Population of the study
1.7 Participants of the study
1.8 Sampling procedures
1.9 Sources of data
1.10 Data Collection Techniques
1.11 Data Analysis
1.12 Trustworthiness
1.13 Ethical considerations
1.14 Conceptual Analysis
CHAPTER 2  SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION (SLA) AND USES OF LANGUAGE
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Theoretical Framework
2.3. Code-switching
2.4 Language policy
2.5. Studies conducted in some African countries on LoLT in schools
2.6. A review of methods and/or findings of studies conducted in some African countries on the use of ESL as Lo
2.7 Language and communication
2.8 Language and culture
2.9 Role of language in learning and teaching of Science
2.10 Mother tongue and the medium of instruction at school
2.11 A review of current proposals for mother tongue use as LoLT in Zimbabwe
2.12 Problems caused by the use of ESL as a LoLT
2.13 Summary
CHAPTER 3  RESEARCH DESIGN AND DATA COLLECTION
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Paradigm Worldview
3.3 Research design
3.4 Pilot study
3.5 Research method
3.6 Obtaining permission to conduct research
3.7 Sample size
3.8 Selection of participants
3.9 Gaining access
3.10 The Hawthorne effect
3.11 Data collection methods
3.12 Sources of data
3.13 Data collection and analysis
3.14 Trustworthiness
3.15 Summary
CHAPTER 4  DATA PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Data presentation and analysis
4.3 Data analysis
4.3.1 Data reduction
4.4 Summary
CHAPTER 5 CONCLUSIONS, RECOMMENDATIONS AND LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY
Introduction
Conclusions
Recommendations
APPENDICES
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