THE CHANGING NATURE OF WORK

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CHAPTER 3: LITERATURE OVERVIEW

INTRODUCTION

Economic growth enabled development that left us with a legacy of invaluable innovations, which not only changed the nature of work, but also the way in which people lived, communicated and travelled. These developments occurred in cycles, referred to as waves of change, which is covered in the following part.
The literature review explores the waves of change with the “transition from the Industrial-Bureaucratic Age to the Information-Network” (Lipnack & Stamps, 2004:29), also referred to as the Information Age or Fifth Wave, of which the virtual workplace forms part. Irrespective of the type of workplace (place), that is traditional or virtual, both utilise business processes (process) to transform inputs into outputs. Managing the business processes in the virtual workplace may require a different management style (people) from that in the more traditional workplace, as the challenges faced in the virtual workplace differ from those in the traditional workplace. The literature review covers people-process-place with a review of the changing nature of work (section 3.2). People-process covers business processes and business process maturity (sections 3.4.1 up to 3.4.7 and 3.7.1). The virtual workplace is discussed with the focussing on people-place (sections 3.3.1 to 3.3.6). Process is also discussed in sections 3.5.1 and 3.6.1 respectively. Figure 3.1 depicts the literature overview including the gap between process-place.
The literature review conducted as part of step 1 of the Extended Hermeneutic Circle of Learning is depicted in figure 3.2. This step is also discussed in chapter 6 as part of the application of the Extended Hermeneutic Circle of Learning.

THE CHANGING NATURE OF WORK

This section covers people-process-place as seen in figure 3.1, as part of the literature review depicted in figure 3.2.

Waves of change

The Kondratieff cycles or long waves of economic development were discussed by the Russian economist, Nikolai D Kondratieff, and today these are known as the K-waves. These economic cycles last between 48 to 55 years with the floor or base of the cycle having a high correlation with worldwide depressions (Volland, 1987:123). This is consistent with Kondratieff who did not provide an explanation for the waves, but speculated that they were the result of periodic overexpansion in large industrial capital projects and infrastructure. Each wave makes use of new, unique technologies (Lynch, 2003:1), which assist in solving problems once thought impenetrable. Although the long cycles or waves of economic development are well defined, research into the relationships between stock markets and leading innovation cycle industries has not yet been done (Hilmola, 2007:393). The lack of such research is noted and will not impact on this research as it is beyond the scope of this thesis.
Economic growth is stimulated by the development cycles of industries (process), aided by capital investment as speculated by Kondratieff, and these development cycles are characterised by key innovations (Wonglimpiyarat, 2005:1350),

First Wave: Industrial Revolution

The era preceding the First Wave or K1-Wave, which is before 1780, was characterised by agriculture being the largest production sector (place) in the world (Volland, 1987:131). Finlay (2002:2) takes the era preceding the First Wave or Agricultural Revolution back to about 10 000 years ago. During this period inhabitants (people) exchanged their nomadic life style and hunting for cultivating the earth and the development of farming techniques as well as taming animals (process). Toffler (1980:14) places the First Wave in the same time frame as Finlay, namely from 8000 BC until 1650–1750 AD. This era was also characterised by goods produced for the survival of the inhabitants (people), implying that the producer of the goods was also the consumer (Toffler cited in Tjaden, 1995:4).
The term “Industrial Revolution” was first used by Arnold Toynbee (1852–1883) to describe the development of England’s economy during the period 1760–1840. There is a contradiction in the timelines used by Toynbee and Lynch with the First Wave (1770–1830) also described as the water mechanisation age, as water powered production replaced hand crafted (people, process) production (Lynch, 2003:1).
Technological innovations (process) characterising this period include the use of new basic materials, namely iron and steel as well as the invention of new machines, such as the spinning jenny (Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2002) and canal transportation (Lynch, 2003:1) which relates to water mechanisation as described earlier.
Iron and steel, as invaluable new basic materials, paved the way for the expansion of railroads, which became the most significant quality of the Second Wave.

Second Wave: Railroadisation

The word “railroadisation” (Lynch, 2003:1) perfectly describes the K2-wave (1820–1880). The Second Wave is dominated by extensive iron railroad expansion (process) improving the distribution and delivery of goods and services to remote markets (place). Markets also include the consumer (people) of goods and services. This is supported by Volland (1987:134) with the development of the world’s largest railroad transportation infrastructure as sixty-eight percent of the steel produced in 1880 was sent to Bessemer steel rails. New sources of energy, such as coal and the steam engine (Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2002), as well as locomotives (Lynch, 2003:1) form part of the inputs shaping the global economy.

Third Wave: The Second Industrial Revolution (electrification)

The Second Wave was followed by another significant development, namely electricity (process). The second industrial revolution occurred during the late 19th and early 20th centuries (1870–1920). Electrification led to the production of inexpensive types of steel, transforming railroads and ultimately laying the foundation for (place) modern cities (Lynch, 2003:1). Electric infrastructure led to the development of skyscrapers, electric lifts, light bulbs and telephones, consequently becoming core to modern day man’s existence (people).

Fourth Wave: Motorisation

The 1910–1970 is known as the motorisation wave, or alternatively the K4-wave (Lynch, 2003:1). High on the list of developments for this period (Volland, 1987:136) is new iron reserves found in China and South America, which pushed steel production to new heights in 1925 and 1926 with stainless steel being produced in 1927. A combination of the development of tools, machinery and computers lead to the establishment of the automatic factory (place and process).
Developments in transportation and communications, such as the development of the automobile, aeroplane, telegraph and radio (process) is also central to this era (Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2000).
One of the most significant developments during the second half of this period is the development of the assembly line (process) in 1913 to 1914 by Henry Ford in the production of his Model T Ford. Human power (people) was replaced to some extent in these factories (place) by machine power (process) (Compton’s interactive encyclopaedia, 1995).
Henry Ford developed a system that was able to deliver parts, subassemblies, as well as assemblies built on subsidiary assembly lines, thus establishing the first production line. Precise and accurate timing lead to the constant moving of the major assembly line, which lead to huge gains in productivity. Davis and Brabänder (2007:2) elaborate on the work done by Henry Ford in that decomposing a bulky piece of work into small, quantifiable and the most beneficial, optimised tasks, such as a production line, significantly reduces manufacturing costs. The sequencing of tasks and the allocation of resources (people and material) to execute the defined tasks, lead to what we today know as a process.

ABSTRACT
KEYWORDS
DECLARATION
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
TABLE OF CONTENTS
LIST OF FIGURES
LIST OF TABLES 
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 
1.1 BACKGROUND
1.2 PROBLEM STATEMENT
1.3 RESEARCH OBJECTIVE
1.4 RESEARCH QUESTIONS
1.5 RESEARCH METHODOLOGIES
1.6 RESEARCH DESIGN
1.7 DISCUSSION OF RESULTS
1.8 PROPOSED CHAPTER PLAN
1.9 CONCLUSION
CHAPTER 2: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
2.1 INTRODUCTION
2.2 RESEARCH METHOD
2.3 RESEARCH APPROACH
2.4 CONCLUSION
CHAPTER 3: LITERATURE OVERVIEW
3.1 INTRODUCTION
3.2 THE CHANGING NATURE OF WORK
3.3 THE VIRTUAL WORKPLACE
3.4 BUSINESS PROCESSES
3.5 BUSINESS PROCESS MANAGEMENT
3.6 BUSINESS PROCESS IMPROVEMENT
3.7 BUSINESS PROCESS MATURITY
3.8 CONCLUSION
CHAPTER 4: PEOPLE, PROCESSES AND PLACES
4.1 INTRODUCTION
4.2 PEOPLE, PROCESSES AND PLACES
4.3 PEOPLE
4.4 PROCESS
4.5 PLACE
4.7 CONCLUSION
CHAPTER 5: MANAGEMENT FRAMEWORK FOR PEOPLE, PROCESSES AND  PLACES IN THE VIRTUAL WORKPLACE
5.1 INTRODUCTION
5.2 PEOPLE, PROCESSES AND PLACES
5.3 MANAGEMENT
5.4 TECHNOLOGY
5.5 PRACTICE
5.6 REFLECTING ON THE MANAGEMENT FRAMEWORK.
5.7 CONCLUSION
6.0 CONCLUSION
6.1 INTRODUCTION
6.2 THE EXTENDED HERMEUNETIC CIRCLE OF LEARNING
6.3 PHASE 1: RESEARCH DESIGN
6.4 PHASE 2: DATA COLLECTION
6.5 PHASE 3: DATA ORDERING
6.6 PHASE 4: DATA ANALYSIS
6.7 PHASE 5: LITERATURE COMPARISON
6.8 EVALUATION OF RESEARCH
6.9 RESEARCH QUESTIONS ANSWERED
6.10 CONTRIBUTION OF THIS RESEARCH
6.11 LIMITATIONS
6.12 FUTURE RESEARCH
6.13 CONCLUSION
BIBLIOGRAPHY
APPENDIX 
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