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Dimensions of curriculum
Schmidt et al. (1996) point out that a feature of IEA studies is that they recognise the need to consider educational outcomes in relation to educational inputs. IEA studies vary in form and content but overall retain curriculum-based explanatory designs based on the original work of Travers and Westbury (1989) (IEA, 1998). A number of manifestations of the IEA‟s working model also assume that various factors influence the educational process at three different levels, namely system, classroom and student17, which are akin to the levels of curriculum outlined in the sub-section above. These three levels are however represented by three conceptions of the curriculum, the intended, the implemented and the attained (Schmidt et al., 1996).
As Schmidt et al. (1996) explain, each of the three curriculum dimensions represents a particular set of variables and a societal context in which they are embedded. The intended curriculum involves the macro education system‟s goals and means. Decision-making about these factors can occur at local or regional level, or via a central, national authority with official curriculum visions, aims and goals presented in national and regional guides, or through documents used to guide the education process. The implemented curriculum pertains to practices, activities and institutional arrangements in the educational context of meso level schools and micro level classrooms. Practices occur to implement the visions, aims and goals specified in the intended curriculum. Significant for the conceptual framework for this study is that implementation is influenced by the background, ideas, attitudes and pedagogical orientation and practice of teachers. The attained curriculum is concerned with the outcomes of schooling evidenced by what learners have actually attained through their educational experiences. What students learn is influenced by what the education system has intended them to learn. Learning is also influenced by the quality and manner in which these intentions have been implemented (Schmidt et al., 1996). For this study, the attained curriculum is evidenced by learners‟ achievement profiles for the PIRLS 2006.
Focus on the micro level
This research is premised on the supposition that what happens in the classroom at the micro level cannot be divorced from the knowledge, beliefs, goals and interpretation of the curriculum by individual teachers in their schooling contexts. At the micro level, the question “How is instruction organised?” pertains to the influence of instructional organisation on both the implemented curriculum and students‟ learning experiences. Decision-making about instruction occurs at all levels of the education system, including classroom teachers. The influence of the school and the teacher were also discussed extensively in the literature review in Chapter Three. The organised implementation of the curriculum in the classroom includes the role of learners in classrooms and factors related to the classroom itself. These factors include: textbook usage; lesson structure; instructional materials; assessment of students; teacher and student interaction; homework; and grouping of learners in classrooms (Schmidt et al., 1996), factors not dissimilar to Van den Akker‟s (2003) curriculum components.
Again, the question “Who delivers the instruction?” explores the role of the teacher delivering instruction. It is the teacher who moulds instructional activities which impact learners‟ learning experiences. According to Schmidt et al.‟s (1996) model, the factors influencing the teacher‟s role can be investigated by examining official teacher certification qualifications, the professional organisation and environment of the teacher which influences their teaching (including time usage- time spent planning, time teaching or cross-grade level teaching, cooperation and collaboration amongst teachers), and teacher characteristics. Teacher characteristics influence the quality of instruction and thus the quality of learners‟ educational experiences. Teachers‟ backgrounds and their beliefs are included. Background variables include: age; gender; education; subject taught; and teaching experience. Beliefs involve subject-matter orientation and subject-matter specific pedagogy which influence instructional practices and learner achievement. Subject-matter beliefs include views a teacher has of a subject as a discipline whereas pedagogical beliefs deal with the teacher‟s beliefs about good ways to teach particular topics in the subject (Schmidt et al., 1996). Schmidt et al. (1996) further highlight the relationship between subject matter orientation, pedagogical beliefs and what teachers do.
Poulson and colleagues (2001) point to a growing body of research that suggests that it is not only teachers‟ behaviour in the classroom that influences what children learn but also teachers‟ knowledge (both formal and practical); values, beliefs, theories and thought processes which are important. Teacher knowledge is considered an integrated system of internalised information about learners, content and pedagogy. Beliefs are a personalised form of dynamic knowledge, implicit assumptions or interpretive filters that guide teachers‟ perceptions, judgements and behaviour regarding content, learners and learning. Teachers‟ goals are defined as their expectations about the intellectual, social and emotional outcomes for learners as a result of classroom experiences (Artzt & Armour-Thomas, 1998), in this case their classroom reading experiences. Most teachers thus have a “personal theory” of what they wish to teach which frames their teaching activities (McKenzie & Turbill, 1999, p.8).
The relationship between beliefs and practice is complex, because the relationship seems to be dialectical rather than unilateral as practice does not necessarily flow from beliefs, with changes in beliefs sometimes occurring as a result of change in practice (Poulson et al., 2001). Moreover, Lin, Schwartz and Hatano (2005) argue that the problems that teachers face, such as assisting diverse learners to achieve reading literacy, can take more time to solve. Also, potential solutions have to be weighed against the competing values of other teachers, the school as a whole, district, provincial and national education directives and even the values of learners, their parents and the community itself. Lin et al. (2005) further contend that teaching involves active adaptation to learners and the teaching environment. It is therefore appropriate to consider teachers‟ practices, which are driven by their underlying knowledge, beliefs, goals and thought processes, as adaptive practices based on their continually evolving thinking about their learners‟ needs and their teaching context.
CHAPTER ONE MOTIVATION FOR AND OVERVIEW OF THE STUDY
1.1 ORIENTATION
1.2 BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY
1.3 RATIONALE, RESEARCH AIM AND CONTRIBUTION
1.4 MAIN RESEARCH QUESTION AND SUB-QUESTIONS
1.5 OPERATIONALISATION OF KEY TERMS FOR THE STUDY
1.6 CHAPTER DELINEATION FOR THE STUDY
CHAPTER TWO THE MACRO LEVEL EDUCATION LANDSCAPE: SOUTH AFRICAN POLICY ISSUES IN CONTEXT
2.1 ORIENTATION
2.2 OVERVIEW OF DEVELOPMENTS IN THE SOUTH AFRICAN EDUCATION SYSTEM
2.3 SYNOPSIS OF POLICY INFLUENCES IN EDUCATION
2.4 CONCLUDING COMMENTS
CHAPTER THREE LITERATURE REVIEW
3.1 ORIENTATION
3.2 INTERNATIONAL OUTLOOK ON READING LITERACY DEVELOPMENT
3.3 SOUTH AFRICAN LEARNERS’ READING LITERACY ACHIEVEMENT
3.4 OVERVIEW OF FACTORS INFLUENCING LEARNERS’ READING LITERACY ACHIEVEMENT
3.5 SCHOOL LEVEL FACTORS
3.6 CLASSROOM TEACHING FACTORS
3.7 CONCLUDING COMMENTS
CHAPTER FOUR CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK FOR THE STUDY
4.1 ORIENTATION
4.2 CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK UNDERPINNINGS
4.3 CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK FOR THE STUDY
4.4 CONCLUDING COMMENTS
CHAPTER FIVE RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY
5.1 ORIENTATION
5.2 RESEARCH PARADIGM
5.3 RESEARCH DESIGN
5.4 METHODOLOGICAL NORMS FOR THE STUDY
5.5 ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS FOR THE STUDY
5.6 CONCLUDING COMMENTS
CHAPTER SIX PHASE ONE FINDINGS: MESO LEVEL SCHOOL CONTEXTS AND CONDITIONS OF PRACTICE FOR READING LITERACY DEVELOPMENT
6.1 ORIENTATION
6.2 SCHOOL ENVIRONMENT AND RESOURCES
6.3 TEACHER PROFESSIONAL ORGANISATION AND ENVIRONMENT
6.4 LEARNER CHARACTERISTICS
6.5 CONCLUDING COMMENTS
CHAPTER SEVEN PHASE TWO FINDINGS: CASE STUDIES OF SELECTED SCHOOL CONTEXTS AND CONDITIONS OF PRACTICE FOR READING LITERACY DEVELOPMENT
7.1 ORIENTATION
7.2 SCHOOL ENVIRONMENT
7.3 LEARNER CHARACTERISTICS AND PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT FOR READING LITERACY
7.4 RESOURCE ADEQUACY
7.5 PROFESSIONAL ORGANISATION OF READING LITERACY TEACHING AND LEARNING
7.6 PERCEPTIONS AND EXPERIENCES OF CURRICULUM IMPLEMENTATION
7.7 DISCUSSION AND SUMMARY OF DATA
7.8 CONCLUDING COMMENTS
CHAPTER EIGHT PHASE ONE FINDINGS: TEACHER CHARACTERISTICS, CLASSROOM ENVIRONMENTS AND TEACHING PRACTICES FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF READING LITERACY
8.1 ORIENTATION
8.2 TEACHER BACKGROUND, TRAINING AND PREPARATION
8.3 CLASS COMPOSITION AND READING SPECIALIST ACCESS
8.4 AVAILABILITY AND USE OF READING RESOURCES
8.5 TIME ALLOCATION FOR INSTRUCTION
8.6 INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES AND ACTIVITIES
8.7 HOMEWORK AND ASSESSMENT
8.8 CONCLUDING COMMENTS
CHAPTER NINE PHASE TWO FINDINGS: MICRO LEVEL TEACHER CHARACTERISTICS, CLASSROOM ENVIRONMENTS AND TEACHING PRACTICES FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF READING LITERACY
9.1 ORIENTATION
9.2 TEACHER BACKGROUND AND GOALS
9.3 CLASS SIZE AND LEARNERS’ READING PROFILES
9.4 OVERALL LANGUAGE TEACHING STRATEGIES
9.5 CLASSROOM READING MATERIALS, READING INSTRUCTION AND READING HOMEWORK
9.6 READING COMPREHENSION DEVELOPMENT PRACTICES
9.7 DISCUSSION AND SUMMARY OF DATA
9.8 CONCLUDING COMMENTS
CHAPTER TEN SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
10.1 ORIENTATION
10.2 SUMMARY OF THE RESEARCH PROCESS UNDERTAKEN
10.3 SUMMARY AND DISCUSSION OF THE RESEARCH FINDINGS
10.4 RESEARCH REFLECTIONS
10.5 POLICY, PRACTICE AND RESEARCH RECOMMENDATIONS
10.6 CLOSING THOUGHTS
