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CHAPTER 2: THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN EDUCATIONAL TOURISM AND INTERNATIONAL EDUCATION
INTRODUCTION
The theories of educational tourism and international education both describe the process of travelling in order to learn and share a common history. The theories diverge in terms of the educational level to which they are applied: educational tourism can be integrated into all levels of education, from primary school to life-long learning (Ritchie, 2003), whereas international education is specifically a tertiary-level educational phenomenon (Knight, 2004). Furthermore, while travel is a prerequisite for all forms of educational tourism, a large component of international education is concerned with internationalising the curriculum, “internationalisation at home” (Knight, 2012:34) and as such is not associated with any form of travel. By drawing together the theory of educational tourism and the aspects of international education theory that are associated with international travel, namely “cross-border education” (Knight, 2014:34), this chapter lays the foundation for the development of a conceptual model of international educational tourism (IET) that is proposed in Chapter Four.
The presentation of information in this chapter is arranged in two parts. It commences with a review of educational tourism and international education within the higher education sector owing to the fact that most of the literature, as well as industry development, is focussed there. The second part of the chapter considers school-based educational tourism and the characteristics of the schools that offer IET.
The chapter commences with a discussion on the shared history of educational tourism and international education. Following that, definitions of the two concepts are considered. The export education industry is briefly analysed in order to demonstrate how international education has developed in the last few decades and to illustrate the potential for growth in the IET market. The second part of the chapter traces the history of educational tourism in schools. Then contemporary IET associations and their regulatory bodies are briefly discussed. The defining characteristics of exclusive high schools and the type of IET experiences they offer are described. The chapter concludes with a review of the literature pertaining to school-based educational tourism research.
HISTORY OF EDUCATIONAL TOURISM AND INTERNATIONAL EDUCATION
Ever since our early ancestors migrated out of Africa over one million years ago, the inherent inquisitiveness of humans has led us to travel to seek out novel destinations. It can be argued that learning of some description is a component of all forms of travel. Early pilgrims would have experienced different cultures as they travelled to religious sites. Seafarers encountered innumerable new phenomena during the Age of Discovery, and armies would undoubtedly have been aware of the differences of, and similarities to, the people they conquered. In each of these instances however, learning would have been incidental to the primary motivators of travel, namely: religion, economics or military domination. When the desire to learn, that is to develop one‟s knowledge, skills or values, is a major reason for travelling, then one may be considered to be an educational tourist
The Grand Tour and British educational tourism
The Grand Tour is generally cited as the origin of educational tourism (Ritchie, 2003) and international education (De Wit & Merkx, 2012). Conceived during the mid-sixteenth century, young aristocratic British men and their tutors, the peregrinationes academicae (academic pilgrims) (De Wit & Merkx, 2012:44), would spend on average three years touring certain cities and places in Western Europe primarily for education and pleasure (Towner, 1985:310). Participants were taught foreign languages (Latin, French, Italian and German); visited ancient Classical and Renaissance sites (Towner, 1985:311), and learned fencing, riding, dancing and foreign affairs (Ritchie, 2003:10). The practice of sending their sons to study at the prestigious institutions of the Old World was viewed by the wealthy as a means of exercising their privilege (Dorres & Scheuermann, 2007:4).
The Enlightenment period
With the onset of the Enlightenment period, a new segment of educational tourism emerged, the “scientific traveller” (Towner, 1985:311), which was possibly in response to the establishment of the Royal Society in 1660. The society‟s members originally comprised academics and wealthy amateur natural scientists (Royal Society, n.d.) and it was the latter that travelled extensively gathering empirical data and specimens. As increasing numbers of professional middle-class men and later their families started taking shorter versions of the Grand Tour, the profile of the tourists changed to such an extent that by the mid-eighteenth century the aristocracy abandoned the Grand Tour to seek more “socially exclusive” destinations (Towner, 1985:309; Kopper, 2009).
The Romantic period
Educational tourists driven by literary motives increased in numbers during the 1880s and 1890s (James, 2013; Towner, 1985). Many of these tourists were professional writers seeking inspiration from destinations associated with the Romantic writers and artists. A Romantic Grand Tour operated in Europe between 1814 and 1820 (Towner, 1985:311). European finishing schools were also established during this period, providing young women the opportunity to travel to Europe to acquire “an irreproachable foundation in all aspects of social etiquette, entertaining and lifestyle appreciation” (Zablith, n.d.).
The Victorian period
The Victorian period heralded large scale British imperial expansion and its associated global travel. The Royal Geographical Society, founded in 1830 as a “gentleman‟s dining club” in London (Royal Geographical Society, 2005), encouraged travel with an educational focus. Charles Darwin was elected onto its council in 1837 and is arguably one of the most prolific educational tourists ever, having gathered specimens from around the world during his five year-long voyage on the HMS Beagle between 1826 and 1830. Closely allied for many of its earlier years with “colonial exploration in Africa, the Indian sub-continent, the polar regions and central Asia” (Royal Geographic Society, 2005), the Royal Geographical Society‟s members included inter alia: Livingstone, Stanley, Scott, Shackleton and Hillary. Through their travels, these men not only personally grew in knowledge, but also significantly expanded the body of knowledge of the time. The Victorian preoccupation with ancient Egypt also spawned a number of educational tourists. Victorian intellectual and travel writer Amelia Edwards (1831-1892) explained an attraction of travel to Egypt was “the possibility for even an amateur to make important contributions to knowledge of its ancient civilization” (O‟Neill, 2009:43).
Towards the end of the 19th century, the Grand Tour dissipated (Towner, 1985). In 1847 the Royal Society became an academy of professional scientists (Royal Society, n.d); the Industrial Revolution and its associated infrastructure led to the massification of tourism (Gordon, 2014), and tourists‟ interests became more sophisticated and diverse (Colbert, 2014).
The Fashionable Tour and North American educational tourism
19th Century
Across the Atlantic, by 1820 the Fashionable Tour provided a cheaper and more accessible alternative to the Grand Tour for Americans and Canadians (Gordon, 2014:83) and encompassed the north-eastern USA with an extension north into Canada. The development of the Fashionable Tour coincided with the creation of guidebook itineraries and walking tours, which enabled 19th century tourists to educate themselves about local culture and history as they strolled through the city (Gordon, 2014).
20th Century
By the early 20th century, educational tourism had become a means by which American teachers, the majority of whom were single women, could improve their promotional possibilities, integrate what they learned during their travels into their teaching and earn middle-class respectability (Gough, 2011). The academic sabbatical had been introduced into ten universities and colleges during the last two decades of the nineteenth century (Kimball, 1978) and spread to high schools shortly thereafter. Teacher travel was encouraged in 1911 by the establishment of the Kahn Foundation which offered fellowships to high school teachers for travel abroad (De Wit & Merkx, 2012:47). By early 1930, teachers on sabbatical comprised the largest occupational group to travel abroad (Gough, 2011:270)
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY
1.1 BACKGROUND
1.2 PROBLEM STATEMENT
1.3 PURPOSE STATEMENT
1.4 RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY
1.5 RESEARCH ETHICS
1.6 ACADEMIC VALUE AND CONTRIBUTION OF THE STUDY
1.7 CHAPTER SEQUENCE
1.8 SCOPE
1.9 DEFINITION OF KEY TERMS
1.10 SUMMARY
CHAPTER 2: THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN EDUCATIONAL TOURISM AND INTERNATIONAL EDUCATION
2.1 INTRODUCTION
2.2 HISTORY OF EDUCATIONAL TOURISM AND INTERNATIONAL EDUCATION
2.3 DEFINING EDUCATIONAL TOURISM
2.4 DEFINING INTERNATIONAL EDUCATION
2.5 THE GLOBAL EXPORT EDUCATION INDUSTRY
2.6 THE RISE OF EDUCATIONAL TOURISM IN SCHOOLS
2.7 INTERNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL TOURISM IN EXCLUSIVE HIGH SCHOOLS
2.8 RESEARCH IN SCHOOL-BASED EDUCATIONAL TOURISM
2.9 SUMMARY
CHAPTER 3: GLOBAL AND EXPERIENTIAL LEARNING
3.1 INTRODUCTION
3.2 GLOBAL LEARNING TERMINOLOGY
3.3 THE PROGRESSION OF GLOBAL LEARNING
3.4 GLOBAL LEARNING THEORY
3.5 EXPERIENTIAL LEARNING THEORY
3.6 QUANTIFYING GLOBAL LEARNING
3.7 THE NEED FOR GLOBAL LEARNING
3.8 SUMMARY
CHAPTER 4: RECONCEPTUALISING EDUCATIONAL TOURISM THEORY
4.1 INTRODUCTION
4.2 AN EDUCATIONAL TOURISM TYPOLOGY
4.3 TOWARDS THE DEVELOPMENT OF A PROCESS MODEL OF INTERNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL TOURISM
4.4 GLOBAL LEARNING OUTCOMES OF INTERNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL TOURISM
4.5 UNIQUE CHARACTERISTICS OF INTERNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL TOURISM
4.6 SUMMARY
CHAPTER 5: SOUTH AFRICA‟S EXCLUSIVE SCHOOLS
5.1 INTRODUCTION
5.2 THE DUALISTIC NATURE OF SOUTH AFRICA‟S SCHOOLS .
5.3 A BRIEF HISTORY OF SOUTH AFRICA‟S EXCLUSIVE SCHOOLS
5.4 INTERNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL TOURISM OPPORTUNITIES IN SOUTH AFRICA‟S EXCLUSIVE SCHOOLS
5.5 SUMMARY
CHAPTER 6: RESEARCH DESIGN
6.1 INTRODUCTION .
6.2 RESEARCH PHILOSOPHY
6.3 RESEARCH STRATEGY
6.4 DESIGN OF THE SURVEY INSTRUMENT
6.5 PILOT STUDY
6.6 SAMPLING FRAMES AND DATA COLLECTION
6.7 ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS
6.8 SUMMARY
CHAPTER 7: FINDINGS AND ANALYSIS
7.1 INTRODUCTION
7.2 DEMOGRAPHIC PROFILES OF RESEARCH PARTICIPANTS
7.3 PARTICIPANTS‟ INTERNATIONAL TRAVEL EXPERIENCES
7.4 DEMOGRAPHIC PROFILES OF LEARNERS WHO HAVE TRAVELLED INTERNATIONALLY.
7.5 SCHOOL-BASED INTERNATIONAL TRAVEL
7.6 DETERMINING THE RELIABILITY AND VALIDITY OF THE GLOBAL LEARNING SURVEY INSTRUMENT
7.7 LEARNERS‟ PERCEPTIONS OF GLOBAL PROBLEMS
7.8 TESTING THE HYPOTHESES
7.9 MODERATING AND CONFOUNDING VARIABLES
7.10 SUMMARY OF VARIABLES THAT INFLUENCE GLOBAL LEARNING
7.11 TESTING THE INTERNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL TOURISM MODEL
7.12 SYNOPSIS OF FACTORS WHICH INFLUENCE GLOBAL LEARNING DURING IET
7.13 THE CONTRIBUTION OF INTERNATIONAL TRAVEL TO “BRAIN DRAIN”
7.14 SUMMARY
CHAPTER 8: DISCUSSION
8.1 INTRODUCTION
8.2 REVISITING THE OBJECTIVES AND HYPOTHESES
8.3 RESEARCH INSIGHTS AND CONTRIBUTIONS
8.4 LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY
8.5 FUTURE RESEARCH
8.6 CONCLUSION
REFERENCES
