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CHAPTER 2 – LITERATURE REVIEW AND CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
“South Africa needs to ensure that ICT becomes an enabler in the country. On the skills front, many young people from historically disadvantaged backgrounds come out of the basic education system, never having been exposed to ICTs. This impacts their performance in institutions of higher learning, as well as their ability to adapt and become competent in the use of ICTs.”
President Jacob Zuma3, President of the Republic of South Africa (Chiles, 2012, p. 1)
“We must admit that the transformation of our education system into 21st century learning environments that provide our learners with the skills they need to succeed in today’s information age economy is long overdue.”
Ms Angie Motshekga4, Minister of Basic Education (RSA, 2015, p. 1)
Introduction
After the dawn of democracy in 1994, the South African Government identified education reform as one of its priorities for the upliftment of a large number of South Africans disadvantaged by previous policies of segregation in the country (Isaacs, 2007; Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development [OECD], 2008; RSA, 1996b). A number of education legislation, policy and curriculum reforms have changed the South African education landscape over the past twenty years. The most important change has been the establishment of a single education department to replace the racially segregated education departments that existed before 1994 (Lundall & Howell, 2000; RSA, 1996a; RSA, 1996b). However, since 1994 the education system in South Africa has faced huge challenges, such as poor learner achievement, diminished labour market relevance (OECD, 2008) and the redress of differences in resources between poor and privileged schools (Chisholm, 2005; Du Toit, 2005)
Worldwide, Information and Communications Technology (ICT) is acknowledged as a crucial ingredient for the transformation of any society (DOE, 2004; OECD, 2010; Plomp, Pelgrum & Law, 2007). Since the late 1990’s the DBE implemented several interventions aimed at improving the quality of education in South African schools. While these interventions, such as frequent curriculum reforms – the National Curriculum Statements in 2002 (DOE, 2002) and the Curriculum and Assessment Policy Statements in 2012 (DBE, 2011) – and professional development programmes for South African educators were received well (DBE & DHET, 2010). However, concern still exists about the quality of education in South Africa (Howie & Hughes, 1998; Reddy, 2006; Spaull, 2013). In the Education at a Glance 2016 study conducted by the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) on education in South Africa, a clear relationship between higher levels of education and improved social outcomes was identified (OECD, 2016). According to this study, educational achievement seemed to have a significant influence on the perceptions of life fulfilment of South African individuals aged 25 to 64.
In order to fast-track the improvement of education in South Africa, the South African government has been steadily increasing government spending on education. Between 2011 and 2017, the national budget allocation for education has increased from R198 billion in the 2011/12 financial year to around R320.5 billion in the 2017/18 financial year (National Treasury, 2017a; Statistics South Africa, 2015). In the 2017/18 financial year the expenditure on education reached around 20% of the total South African government budget (National Treasury, 2017a). Despite this increase in expenditure on education, the South African government still spent significantly less than the OECD average per South African learner in 2016 – the 2016 expenditure on South African secondary school learners was US$ 2 513 per learner, while the OECD average for the same year was US$ 9 811 per learner (OECD, 2016).
However, the South African government budget is severely constrained and in the 2017 Medium Term Budget and Policy Statement (National Treasury, 2017b) the Minister of Finance revised the budget allocation for education downward to R249.8 billion. In a media statement, Equal Education, a lobby group of education activists promoting improved education in South Africa, expressed concern at the decrease in actual budget allocation to education and advocated for increased government spending to improve the basic infrastructure which is still lacking in many South African schools (Equal Education, 2017). The burden to do more with less is a daily reality in South African schools (Equal Education, 2017; Spaull & Kotze, 2015) and the (incorrect) idea that a once-off investment in ICT may alleviate the pressure seems to be reason enough for education leaders to seriously consider supporting the integration of ICT in schools .
ICT in the context of education
ICT is a central concept used in this study and it is therefore necessary to further unpack how ICT is understood in the context of education. The White Paper on e-Education identifies three separate aspects when it comes to ICT in education:
Enriching the learning environment through the use of ICT is continuum; it’s a process that takes learners and teachers through learning about ICTs (exploring what can be done with ICTs), learning with ICTs (using ICTs to supplement normal processes or resources) and learning through the use of ICTs (using ICTs to support new ways of teaching and learning). (DOE, 2004, p. 19)
“Learning with ICTs” can be defined as using ICT as a tool to support teaching and learning in a traditional classroom (Webb, 2002, p. 238). The use of educational software for the drill-and-practise of mathematics tables is a good example of learning with ICT. “Learning through the use of ICTs” can be defined as situations where ICT functions as the total learning environment – the provision of learning materials, the teaching, the testing and the assessment is conducted inside the environment created by ICT (Webb, 2002, p. 238). A good example of learning through the use of ICT is the use of Massive Open Online Courses (MOOCs) where learners from anywhere in the world log into a learning site and complete their learning there.
A number of studies found the availability of ICT for personal use to be closely linked to a country’s levels of economic and social development – the more ICT available for personal use, generally the higher a country’s levels of economic and social development (Bialobrzeska Cohen, 2005; Plomp et al., 2007; World Bank, 2016). Fuchs and Woessmann (2004) identified the use of ICT to be beneficial for the economic prospects of an individual. Their research showed that computer skills may impact positively on the productivity and income of individuals, and the labour market prospects of individuals may widen when ICT is used to learn new skills.
The availability of ICT for personal use in South Africa has slowly increased over the recent past. It is interesting to note that Statistics South Africa only started to include computers as indicator of household assets in the 2012 General Household Survey (Statistics South Africa, 2013) when 19.5% of households in South Africa indicated that they possess at least one computer. By 2016 the number of South African households with at least one computer increased slightly to 21.4% (Statistics South Africa, 2017).
In this study the use of ICT as a tool for teaching and learning in the context of mathematics education in South Africa was explored. Data collected during the 2011 and 2015 iterations of the TIMSS studies was used. This study therefore focused on ICT as tool for teaching and learning in South African schools and does not enter into debate on whether ICT should be integrated into the curriculum of other subjects at South African schools.
General benefits of the use of ICT
The benefits and potential power of ICT in the private business sector have long been accepted (International Society for Technology in Education [ISTE], 2016; Law, Pelgrum & Plomp, 2008; World Economic Forum [WEF], 2015). Integrating ICT in teaching and learning in order to harness its potential power and application for education is becoming more prevalent (Mullis, Martin & Loveless, 2016). At the turn of the century, Imison and Taylor (2001) already identified ICT as catalyst in extending the boundaries of traditional teaching and learning.
Emerging economies, like South Africa, face many demographical, political and social challenges and these challenges demand an ICT friendly education environment which will prepare learners for participation in the modern economy (Stols et al., 2015; WEF, 2015). There is a general agreement that the global economy is changing from a predominantly industrial economy to a knowledge economy (Gudmundsdottir, 2010; United Nations, 2015; WEF, 2015). Anderson (2008) sees the concept of knowledge economy as economic systems where knowledge and concepts function as commodities. Two of the features of a knowledge economy that are relevant for education, are that technology simplifies the sharing of knowledge and that knowledge now functions as a commodity in the economy of a country (Anderson, 2008).
Declaration
Ethical Clearance Certificate
Ethics Statement
Dedication
Acknowledgements
Abstract
Language Editor
List of Abbreviations
Table of Contents
List of Figures
List of Tables
List of Appendices
1. CHAPTER 1 – INTRODUCTION
1.1. Introduction
1.2. Background to the problem
1.3. Research questions
1.4. Nature of the study
1.5. Purpose of the study
1.6. Conceptual framework of the study
1.7. Concepts used in the study
1.8. Assumptions of the study
1.9. Delimitations of the study
1.10. Limitations of the study
1.11. Ethical considerations
1.12. Chapter outline
1.13. Summary
2. CHAPTER 2 – LITERATURE REVIEW AND CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
2.1. Introduction
2.2. ICT in the context of education
2.3. General benefits of the use of ICT
2.4. Educational benefits of using ICT
2.5. The role of governments in the integration of ICT in education
2.6. The role of schools and educators in the integration of ICT in education
2.7. Barriers and challenges to the implementation of ICT in education
2.8. Background to the education system in South Africa
2.9. Conceptual framework
2.10. Summary
3. CHAPTER 3 – RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.1. Introduction
3.2. Research design and methodology of TIMSS
3.3. Research design and methodology of this study
3.4. Summary
4. CHAPTER 4 – BACKGROUND TO THE DATA ANALYSIS OF THE TIMSS CONTEXT QUESTIONNAIRES
4.1. Introduction
4.2. Variable selection
4.3. Data selection
4.4. Data analysis
4.5. Objectives of the study
4.6. Summary
5. CHAPTER 5 – TIMSS EIGHTH GRADE SCHOOL QUESTIONNAIRES DATA ANALYSIS AND RESULTS
5.1. Introduction
5.2. Shortage of computers for mathematics instruction (BCBG09BB and BCBG13AH)
5.3. Shortage of computer software for mathematics instruction (BCBG09BC and BCBG13BB) .
5.4. Shortage of audio-visual materials relevant to mathematics (BCBG09BE and BCBG13AG)
5.5. Findings from the statistical analysis of the Eighth Grade School Questionnaires
5.6. Summary
6. CHAPTER 6 – TIMSS EIGHTH GRADE MATHEMATICS TEACHER QUESTIONNAIRES DATA ANALYSIS AND RESULTS
6.1. Introduction
6.2. Support for integrating technology in teaching and learning (BTBG09BC and BTBG08G)
6.3. Availability of computers during mathematics lessons (BTBM22A and BTBM20A)
6.4. Exploration of mathematics principles and concepts on computers (BTBM22CA and BTBM20CA)
6.5. Practise mathematics skills and procedures on the computer (BTBM22CB and BTBM20CB)
6.6. Look up ideas and information on the computer (BTBM22CC and BTBM20CC)
6.7. Process and analyse data on the computer (BTBM22CD and BTBM20CD)
6.8. Professional development in integrating ICT in mathematics (BTBM29D and BTBM24D)
6.9. Findings from the statistical analysis of the Eighth Grade Mathematics Teacher Questionnaires
6.10. Summary
7. CHAPTER 7 – TIMSS EIGHTH GRADE STUDENT QUESTIONNAIRES DATA ANALYSIS AND RESULTS
7.1. Introduction
7.2. Availability of computer technology at home – an expansion of the TIMSS 2011 variable
7.3. Availability of an own computer at home (BSBG05A and BSBG06A)
7.4. Availability of a shared computer at home (BSBG05A and BSBG06B)
7.5. Use of computers by South African learners
7.6. Computer use at home (BSBG10A and BSBG13A)
7.7. Computer use at school (BSBG10B and BSBG13B)
7.8. Computer use at any other place (BSBG10C and BSBG13C)
7.9. Findings from the statistical analysis of the Eighth Grade Student Questionnaires
7.10. Summary
8. CHAPTER 8 – CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
8.1. Introduction
8.2. Summary of the research project
8.3. Research question 1: What is the relationship between the investment in ICT in South African schools, and the mathematics achievement of the Grade 9 learners who participated in TIMSS 2011 and TIMSS 2015 respectively?
8.4. Research question 2: How can the integration of ICT in South African schools be improved to show an increased educational return on investment?
8.5. The relationship between investment in ICT and mathematics achievement
8.6. Recommendations
8.7. Conclusion
9. REFERENCES
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