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CHAPTER TWO: WHAT THE BUDDHA TAUGHT4
INTRODUCTION
The main research question of this thesis is situated within the context of Tibetan Buddhism. The intention of this chapter is therefore to provide firstly, a brief outline of Buddhism in general in order to orientate the reader within the broader principles of Buddhism. Secondly, the chapter aims at clarifying for the reader the school of Buddhism specifically known as Tibetan Buddhism, Vajrayana Buddhism, or Tantra.Fischer-Schreiber (1994: 50) describes Buddhism as “the religion of the awakened one.” Snelling (2000:8) characterises it as “a jewel from the treasure house of Indian spirituality.” Buddhism seems to be the fastest growing religion in the West today (Guruge 2008: http://www.asiantribune.com). It attracts many new converts as well as people who wish to study and practise various aspects of Buddhism (Guruge 2008:http://www.asiantribune.com). It is estimated that there are approximately between 230 million and 500 million Buddhists worldwide, making Buddhism the world’s fourth largest religion (Geldart 2002:3; http://www.buddhanet.net).
Radhakrishnan (in Sutin 2006: vi) writes that:
The West is passing through a new Renaissance due to the sudden entry into its consciousness of a whole new world of ideas, shapes and fancies…there is a sudden growth of the spirit to-day effected by the new inheritance of Asia with which India is linked up…Whether we like it or not, East and West have come together and can no more part.
WHAT IS BUDDHISM?
Buddhism originated in northern India (Ganeri 2004: 8), with the birth of Prince Siddharta Gautama in a place called Kapilavastu, just inside the borders of what is today Nepal (Smart 1984: 95) about 2 500 years ago, around 563 BCE. Prince Siddharta’s father was a local raja from the Sakya clan (Smart 1984: 95). Consequently Siddharta later became known as Sakyamuni Buddha, i.e. the sage of the Sakya clan. Sakyamuni Buddha refers to the historical Buddha as opposed to other buddhas (enlightened ones) who preceded him or who will follow him in a future age (Fischer-Schreiber 1994: 46, 47). Siddharta Gautama’s life is well-known (Bowker 1997: 56, 57). It is therefore not necessary to describe it here. Suffice it to say that after he attained enlightenment he embarked on a 45-year ministry travelling between the villages, towns, and cities of the central Ganges plain in India (Snelling 2000: 14). He died at the age of 80 around 486 BCE after apparently eating poisoned mushrooms which had accidentally been added to a dish (Smith 1965: 96).
The fundamental tenets of Buddhism
Smith (1965: 104-109) succinctly summarises Buddhism by pointing out that the Buddha taught a devotional method devoid of authority, ritual, speculation, tradition, and the supernatural. He also advocated a path of intense self-effort. After his death all the accoutrements of religion returned, but as long as the Buddha was alive original Buddhism continued as a system that was empirical, pragmatic, therapeutic,psychological, democratic, and directed at individuals.The Buddha argued that he was simply a human being. He did not affirm any inspiration from an external spiritual being or power. Buddhism has no belief in a traditional Creator God, although it does believe in celestial beings called deities (Gyatso 1975: 25). Buddha Sakyamuni therefore accredited his achievements simply to human effort and intelligence (Rahula 1978: 1). Only a human being is able to become a Buddha, and every human being has this potential within him/herself (Rahula 1978: 1). According to Buddhism the human being is master of him/herself, and there is no higher being that sits in judgement over one’s destiny (Rahula 1978: 1). Man therefore has the ability to attain his/her own enlightenment by way of one’s own personal efforts (Rahula 1978: 1). Buddhism consequently allows its adherents great personal freedom based on the principle of individual responsibility (Rahula 1978: 2). The Buddha delivered his first sermon, after he had attained enlightenment, at the Deer Park at Sarnath. The subject of his sermon was The Four Noble Truths. The Four Noble
Truths form the axioms of his system, the fundamental postulates from which almost everything in his teaching logically unfolds (Smith 1965: 110). Rahula (1978: 16) calls it “the heart of the Buddha’s teaching.”
The Four Noble Truths
The First Noble Truth states that suffering (dukkha) exists.
The Second Noble Truth states that suffering has an origin (samudaya).
The Third Noble Truth states that there is a way to end suffering (nirodha).
The Fourth Noble Truth states that there is a means to end suffering, i.e. by following The Noble Eightfold Path (marga) (Ganeri 2004: 14; Hanh 1998: 9,11; Rahula 1978: 16).
The First Noble Truth
The First Noble Truth states that all existence is characterised by suffering and does not bring satisfaction (Fischer-Schreiber 1994: 109). Suffering can perhaps better be translated as non-satisfactoriness. Everyone suffers from non-satisfactoriness to some extent. We usually have some malaise in our body or in our mind (Hanh 1998: 9). Suffering encompasses birth, sickness, death, tied to that which one does not like, separated from what one loves, and not obtaining what one desires (Fischer-Schreiber 1994: 109; Smith 1965: 113). Dukkha also suggests the unsatisfactoriness,inconclusiveness, incoherence, and impermanence of the human condition (Lowenstein1996: 28).
The Second Noble Truth
The Second Noble Truth states that suffering has a cause, an origin. The origin of suffering is the human being’s desire or craving for sensual pleasure, for becoming and for passing away (Fischer-Schreiber 1994: 109). These desires bind the human being to the cycle of existence (samsara) lifetime after lifetime. The individual’s sense of dissatisfaction has its origin in material and spiritual desires (Hanh 1998: 11).
The Third Noble Truth
The Third Noble Truth states that there is a way of overcoming life’s cravings and desires (Smith 1965: 114). Dukkha can cease because its cause can cease (Bercholz &Kohn 1994: 58).
The Fourth Noble Truth
The Fourth Noble Truth tells us how to overcome the desires that lead to our suffering.By following the Noble Eightfold Path dissatisfaction can be surmounted. It has alsobeen described as the Path of Eight Right Practices (Hanh 1998: 11):
Right View
Right Thinking
Right Speech
Right Action
Right Livelihood
Right Diligence
Right Mindfulness
Right Concentration
The Noble Eightfold Path can be divided into three stages: the practice of morality(sila), meditation (samadhi), and wisdom (panna) (Hinnells 1984: 71; Goenka, in(Bercholz & Kohn 1994: 97). The moral practice of sila is the abstention from all unwholesome actions of body and speech, i.e. Right Speech, Right Action, and Right Livelihood. Samadhi is the practice of concentration, developing the ability to intentionally direct and control one’s own mental processes, i.e. Right Diligence, Right
Mindfulness, and Right Concentration. Finally, panna is the practice of wisdom by developing insight into one’s own nature, i.e. Right Thinking, and Right View (Goenka,in Bercholz & Kohn 1994: 96-114).
Further characteristics of Buddhism
In addition there is the belief in causality or “dependent origination” (Lowenstein 1996:30). This suggests that every aspect of human life is conditioned by a prior influence or state of being. For instance, suffering arises as a consequence of individual karma (past action). Karma accumulates as a result of ignorance. Lowenstein (1996: 30) explains the chain of causality in the following way:Because of ignorance, rebirth-producing-karma-formations arise;because of rebirth-producing-karma-formations consciousness arises;because of consciousness, name-and-form arise; because of nameand-form, the sense spheres arise; because of the sense spheres,contact arise; because of contact, feeling arises; because of feeling,craving arises; because of craving, clinging arises; because of clinging, the process of becoming arises; because of becoming, rebirth arises; because of rebirth, old age, death, pain, grief, and despair arise. However, the process can be reversed by knowledge of enlightenment. When this knowledge is achieved, karma and suffering are eliminated, and the fear of death is replaced with the possibility of nirvana (Lowenstein 1996: 30).
In Buddhism there is no enduring, unchanging spirit which can be considered “Self”, or“Soul”, or “Ego”, as opposed to matter (Rahula 1976: 23). The belief in the process of rebirth does not involve the transmigration of a self or soul because the belief that everything is constantly changing precludes a durable entity passing from life to life(Bodhi, in Bercholz & Kohn 1994: 63). Continuity through the succession of rebirths is maintained by the transmission of impressions and tendencies along the stream of consciousness in which they arise. The direction the continuum takes is determined by “volitional action” or karma. It is our own willed actions, bodily, verbal, and mental,that determine the forms of existence we assume in our successive journeys through samsara (Bodhi, in Bercholz & Kohn 1994: 63).Buddhism is further characterised by a monastic community of monks and nuns, whose lives and practice are regulated by a set of rules called the vinaya. The Buddhist sangha is central to the community in Buddhist countries.
CHAPTER ONE: SANDPAPER SISTERHOOD
1.1 INTRODUCTION
1.2 PROBLEM STATEMENT
1.3 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY
1.4 RESEARCH DESIGN
1.4.1 Limitations of the research
1.5 RESEARCH METHOD
1.6 ETHICS
1.7 FOREIGN TERMS
1.8 OUTLINE OF CHAPTERS
CHAPTER TWO: WHAT THE BUDDHA TAUGHT
2.1 INTRODUCTION
2.2 WHAT IS BUDDHISM?
2.2.1 The fundamental tenets of Buddhism
2.2.2 The Four Noble Truths
2.2.2.1 The First Noble Truth
2.2.2.2 The Second Noble Truth
2.2.2.3 The Third Noble Truth
2.2.2.4 The Fourth Noble Truth
2.2.3 Further characteristics of Buddhism
2.3 THE VARIOUS SCHOOLS OF BUDDHISM
2.3.1 Theravada Buddhism
2.3.2 Mahayana Buddhism
2.4 TIBETAN BUDDHISM
2.4.1 Tantra
2.4.2 The Nyingma School
2.4.3 The Sakya School
2.4.4 The Kagyu School
2.4.5 The Gelug School
2.5 MASTERS OF TIBETAN BUDDHISM
2.5.1 His Holiness the fourteenth Dalai Lama
2.5.2 His Holiness Sakya Trizin
2.5.3 His Holiness the 100th Ganden Tri Rinpoche
2.5.4 His Holiness the seventeenth Gyalwa Karmapa Ogyen Trinley Dorje
2.5.5 The eighth Khamtrul Rinpoche Dongyud Nyima
2.6 BUDDHISM IN THE WEST: HOW THE SWANS CAME TO THE LAKE
2.6.1 Thomas William Rhys Davids and Caroline Rhys Davids
2.6.2 Sir Edwin Arnold
2.6.3 Helena Petrovna Blavatsky
2.6.4 Alexandra David-Neel
2.6.5 Walter Yeeling Evans-Wentz
2.6.6 Carl Gustav Jung
2.6.7 James Hilton and T. Lobsang Rampa
2.6.8 Ayya Khema
2.6.9 Other influential individuals
2.6.10 His Holiness the fourteenth Dalai Lama
2.7 CONCLUSION
CHAPTER THREE: THE LAND OF SNOWS
3.1 INTRODUCTION
3.2 THE ROOF OF THE WORLD
3.3 HISTORICAL OVERVIEW
3.3.1 The Dalai Lamas
3.3.2 The British presence in Tibet
3.3.3 Tibetan society before the Chinese invasion
3.4 THE CHINESE INVASION
3.4.1 The national uprising
3.4.2 The Cultural Revolution
3.4.3 The aftermath
3.4.4 The Tibetan environment
3.4.5 Tibet today
3.4.6 The role of Tibetan women in the protest movement
3.5 THE DIASPORA
3.5.1 Tibetans in exile
3.5.2 Imprisoned Tibetans
3.6 TIBETAN BUDDHISM IN THE WEST
3.6.1 Tibetan Buddhism in South Africa
3.7 CONCLUSION
CHAPTER FOUR: DAUGHTERS OF THE BUDDHA
4.1 INTRODUCTION
4.2 SISTERS IN THE FOOTSTEPS OF THE BUDDHA
4.2.1 A Buddhist definition of feminism
4.2.2 Fear of the feminine?
4.2.3 Sisterhood
4.2.4 The divine feminine
4.2.5 Ambiguities and contradictions
4.3 FEMALE DEITIES IN TIBETAN BUDDHISM
4.3.1 Training the imagination
4.3.2 Tara
4.3.2.1 Green Tara: Quintessence of compassion
4.3.2.2 White Tara: The seven eyes of wisdom
4.3.2.3 Red Tara
4.3.3 Vajrayogini
4.3.4 Other Tantric goddesses
4.4 YOGINIS
4.4.1 Yeshe Tsogyel
4.4.2 Machig Lapdron
4.5 DAKINIS
4.6 PRESENT FEMALE INCARNATIONS
4.6.1 Khandro Rinpoche
4.6.1 Ahkon Norbu Lhamo
4.7 THE FEMALE QUEST FOR ENLIGHTENMENT
4.8 CONCLUSION
CHAPTER FIVE: BLOSSOMS OF THE DHARMA: LIVING AS A WESTERN TIBETAN BUDDHIST NUN
5.1 INTRODUCTION
5.2 YOU ARE BECOMING A WHAT?
5.2.1 The contribution of Western nuns
5.3 MONASTIC TRAINING
5.3.1 Training for Western nuns
5.3.2 The precepts
5.4 WESTERN TIBETAN BUDDHIST NUNS: A NEW PHENOMENON IN AN ANCIENT TRADITION
5.4.1 Transforming obstacles
5.4.2 The daily life of a Western Tibetan Buddhist nun
5.5 THE MISSING PILLAR: FULL ORDINATION FOR TIBETAN BUDDHIST NUNS
5.5.1 Full ordination and the reconstruction of religious traditions
5.5.2 The full ordination ceremony in Bodhgaya
5.5.3 The Upasampada ritual
5.5.4 The instatement of the Mulasarvastivada bhikshuni ordination
5.6 GENDER POLITICS
5.7 PROMINENT WESTERN TIBETAN BUDDHIST NUNS
5.7.1 Venerable Jampa Tsedroen
5.7.2 Venerable Karma Lekshe Tsomo
5.7.3 Venerable Thubten Chodron
5.7.4 Venerable Pema Chodron
5.8 OTHER DISTINGUISHED WESTERN NUNS IN THE TIBETAN TRADITION
5.8.1 Venerable Kunga Chodron
5.8.2 Lama Gelongma Zangmo
5.8.3 Venerable Robina Courtin
5.8.4 Venerable Kelsang Wangmo
5.9 WESTERN TIBETAN BUDDHIST NUNNERIES
5.9.1 Gampo Abbey
5.9.2 Sravasti Abbey
5.9.3 The Chenrezig Nuns’ Community
5.9.4 Samye Ling Tibetan Buddhist Centre
5.9.5 The Dharmadatta Nuns’ Community
5.10 BUDDHIST WOMEN’S ORGANISATIONS AND CONFERENCES
5.10.1 The International Congress on Buddhist Women’s Role in the Sangha:Bhikshuni Vinaya and the Ordination Lineages
5.10.2 The Committee of Western Buddhist Nuns/The Committee for Bhikshuni Ordination
5.10.3 Sakyadhita International Association of Buddhist Women
5.11 CONCLUSION
CHAPTER SIX: JETSUNMA TENZIN PALMO
6.1 INTRODUCTION
6.2 CHILDHOOD AND ADOLESCENCE
6.3 THE BREAKTHROUGH – DISCOVERING TIBETAN BUDDHISM
6.4 INDIA AT LAST
6.4.1 The Eighth Khamtrul Rinpoche
6.4.2 The exclusive male club
6.4.3 Other highlights
6.4.4 Lahoul
6.5 THE CAVE IN THE SNOW
6.5.1 Two deaths
6.5.2 Yogini
6.5.3 The end of retreat
6.6 ITALY
6.7 DONGYU GATSAL LING
6.7.1 Initial fundraising
6.7.2 Beginnings
6.7.3 Today
6.7.4 The buildings
6.7.5 Study programme for resident nuns
6.7.6 Fundraising today
6.8 JETSUNMA ORDINATION
6.8.1 The 12th Gyalwang Drukpa and the status of women
6.9 CONCLUSION
CHAPTER SEVEN: THE WORLD NEEDS YOGINIS
7.1 INTRODUCTION
7.2 SUMMARY OF RESEARCH
7.2.1 Why what the Buddha taught appeals to Westerners
7.2.2 The Land of Snows
7.2.3 Daughters of the Buddha
7.2.4 A revalorisation of Buddhism
7.2.5 Institutionalised gender violence
7.2.6 Ambiguities and contradictions
7.2.7 Living as a Western Tibetan Buddhist nun
7.2.8 Bhikshuni ordination
7.2.9 Prominent Western Tibetan Buddhist nuns
7.2.10 Western Tibetan Buddhist nunneries
7.2.11 Leading Buddhist women’s organisations and conferences
7.2.12 Women’s spiritual potential
7.2.13 Jetsunma Tenzin Palmo
7.3 HUMAN RIGHTS?
7.4 SUMMARY OF FINDINGS
7.5 CONCLUSION
GLOSSARY
WORKS CONSULTED
PHOTO CREDITS
APPENDIX
GET THE COMPLETE PROJECT
The female quest for enlightenment: Compassion and patience in transforming gender bias in Tibetan Buddhism, with specific reference to Western Tibetan Buddhist nuns and Jetsunma Tenzin Palmo.
