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CHAPTER 3: COGNITIVE TESTING
Introduction
When evaluating the issues presented in the previous chapter on test development, there is great emphasis on the construct, as it informs the items of the test. In this study, the construct of verbal reasoning is of particular interest and requires one to gain an understanding of this cognitive skill. Since verbal reasoning is a cognitive construct, it is imperative to explore the nature of cognitive testing as well as the theories underpinning the field.
Cognitive tests involve thinking, which is characterised by reasoning, memory, verbal, and mathematical aspects. Tests attempt to measure these constructs by using items that tap into these thinking systems. Tests are therefore comprised of items which operationalize the construct. Assessing whether the test, which is comprised of items, approximates measurement is crucial. Thus the two processes of „understanding the construct‟ and „measuring the construct‟ occurs in either the respective order or they happen concurrently.When testing for cognitive abilities, the test can either have different measures of intelligence or be focused on specific forms of intelligence. Cognitive tests assessing general cognitive ability have been judged to infer learning potential as well as to predict job performance (Hunter, 1986; Kvist & Gustafsson, 2007; Lohman & Lakin, 2009; Sternberg, 1986). Cognitive assessment focusing on verbal intelligence includes constructs such as reading comprehension (Kendeou, Van den Broek, Helder & Karlsson, 2014) and verbal analogies. The most commonly used item formats involve multiple-choice, true or false, and sentence completion item questions. These are similar to the item formats observed in the ECT.This chapter explores the theories of intelligence under which the construct of verbal reasoning is found. These theories are valuable for one to understand how verbal reasoning works and the way in which it is executed in assessments. This chapter will explore the psychological theories of cognitive development, models of intelligence, the influence of the intelligence models, and language and cognition. These factors relating to cognitive testing are vital and extend one‟s understanding of how these cognitive structures interact.
Psychological Theories of Cognition
The utility of the brain needs to be acknowledged at the core of understanding how individuals learn or use language. The process of learning occurs through the activity of neurons and synapses in the brain. The brain is constantly adapting and stimulates simple and complex thought. The brain continues to change throughout one‟s lifespan (Ormrod, 2008). This insight into how the brain functions are what aroused curiosity about how and why humans reason the way they do. This curiosity resides squarely in the domain of psychology as the theorising of how and why humans do what they do is what prompts psychologists to engage with these philosophical questions.
Cognitive tests are commonly informed by the models of intelligence, but the impact of psychological theories on cognitive assessment is equally important as it forms the lens by which this psychological construct can be understood. Psychological theories try to explain human development from birth to death as well as brain functioning within this period.Various aspects of functioning must be explored to fully understand an individual‟s functioning in tests. Within developmental psychology, aspects such as biological, emotional, physical, cognitive, social, and personality are explored to provide a comprehensive picture of an individual‟s functioning. These aspects change throughout an individual‟s lifetime and hence psychologists focus on the different life stages from birth to death. These developmental frameworks allow psychologists to intervene and address individuals more accurately by considering all these various aspects in terms of their age groups (Blake & Pope, 2008).
Various programs, such as No Child Left Behind in America, were created within a developmental framework, which attempted to increase the number of children achieving at school. It had a specific focus on their cognitive development. In this study, the element of development under consideration is intellectual functioning, which falls within cognitive psychology. This means considering mental processing, thinking, perception, memory, and learning abilities, which fundamentally involve activities of acquiring, processing, and storing information (Blake & Pope, 2008).The two theorists who were instrumental in from a psychological perspective capturing human cognitive development were Jean Piaget and Lev Vygotsky. A brief investigation into these theorists‟ approaches is crucial to understanding how cognitive development was understood and how it influenced the development of cognitive assessment. These theories present one with the insight that is required to understand performance on assessments of ability and intelligence which leads to inferences about assessment and testing.
Jean Piaget‟s Stages of Cognitive Development
Jean Piaget (Piaget & Cook, 1977) worked in Alfred Binet‟s laboratory, which is where his interest in cognitive functioning in children arose. His interest was, however, directed at understanding why individuals, specifically children answer questions incorrectly and whether these incorrect answers were related to a lack of knowledge. He believed that their incorrect responses were not random and hence the subsequent stages that individuals progress through are related to acquiring information (Blake & Pope, 2008; Piaget & Cook, 1977).As a result of his investigation, Piaget developed four stages linked to children‟s ages that were connected to learning skills. In the table below, the four developmental stages are listed, and the core reasoning skills are listed below..
Lev Vygotsky Socio-Cultural Theory of Cognitive Development.
Lev Vygotsky had a vastly different approach from Piaget to understanding the intellectual functioning of individuals since he was influenced by Marxist theory. Vygotsky believed that social institutions and interactions assisted in the cognitive development of individuals (Vygotsky, 1978). He believed that the importance of the socio-cultural context could not be underestimated and was crucial for furthering intellectual development. Vygotsky identified cognitive learning zones such as the zone of actual development and the zone of proximal development. The zone of actual development referred to individuals having the ability to complete tasks by themselves, without assistance. This zone consisted of tasks that required only their present ability and hence they were not learning anything new in their completion of the tasks. As a result, Vygotsky endorsed the zone of proximal development, because he believed that tasks in this zone challenged individuals, and would provide for optimal cognitive development. These were tasks that individuals needed assistance with
as they were unable to complete them on their own (Blake & Pope, 2008; Ormrod, 2008; Santrock, 2010; Taylor, 1994; Vygotsky, 1978).Vygotsky emphasised the impact of culture and the role of language on individual cognitive development. He believed that the development of language was an inclination that individuals had from birth. Language develops in a systematic process, in which infants learn words and articulate their words at around age 1. Toddlers at approximately age 2 form sentences and the complexity of these sentences expand until they are in pre-school. When children reach age 5 and 6, their ability to use language becomes similar to adults (Ormrod, 2008; Vygotsky, 1978).Vygotsky identified the concept of scaffolding, which refers to a child being assisted by an adult when attempting to use problem-solving skills. Scaffolding makes use of learning and experiences. This process of scaffolding also allows individuals to improve their reading skills and consequently, Vygotsky‟s theory was influential in programmes such as Reading- and-Recovery and Guided Reading (Blake & Pope, 2008; Santrock, 2010, 2013; Vygotsky, 1978).The most important considerations of Vygotsky‟s theory are his recognition of social and cultural factors that influence learning and development. This is significant in light of the multicultural context in which the ECT was used.
A Comparison of Piaget and Vygotsky‟s Theories of Cognitive Development
Piaget identified stages that individuals had to complete or achieve, while Vygotsky believed that individuals needed environments not above or below their abilities to stimulate learning. Piaget believed that experiences allowed individuals to learn, yet he also argued that cognition was not affected by language skills; hence, cognition preceded the development of language. Vygotsky, however, believed that language was essential in learning, especially when individuals needed to complete demanding tasks (Blake & Pope, 2008).Piaget viewed learning to take place on an individual basis, dependent on the individual. Vygotsky, however, believed that socially interacting furthered the development of intellectual and language abilities. As a result, individuals developed their skills and abilities in their social environments. Piaget‟s theory encouraged individuals to be the source of their own learning, while Vygotsky‟s theory emphasised that individuals learn from their social environment, thus the environment is the source of learning. Piaget believed learning was internalised while Vygotsky externalised the learning experience (Blake & Pope, 2008).Even though Piaget and Vygotsky differed in their construction of theories, they both believed that learning was needed for higher-order thinking to occur. These theories assisted educators in understanding individual‟s learning processes and why some struggle with academics while others excel (Blake & Pope, 2008). These theories highlight the issues related to testing intelligence in individuals as well as the implications considered in cross- cultural testing.Piaget and Vygotsky were instrumental in formulating an understanding of cognitive functioning for children and adults. Moreover, their contrasting views allow for a comprehensive depiction of cognitive functioning in humans. Their theories, however, fell short of adequately exploring the cognitive functioning of adults, as Piaget‟s stages were predominately focused on children and did not allow the adult perspective to be fully understood. For this reason, it is essential to explore the theories that endeavoured to concentrate on adult cognitive functioning. The three theories that will be explored as part of broadly discussing the cognition of adults are Schaie and Willis‟ staged theory of cognition for adulthood (2000); Perry‟s theory of the development of college students (1970); and Belenky,Clinchy, Goldberger, Nancy and Tarule‟s theory of Woman‟s ways of Knowing (1986).
Schaie and Willis‟s Staged Theory of Cognition for Adulthood
Theorists such as Erik Erikson, who theorised about psychosocial development, and Paul Baltes‟s theory on selection, optimisation, and compensation only attempted to broadly address the development of individuals across the lifespan. There was, however, a need for a more comprehensive theory that pertained to the psychological advancement of individuals, with a specific focus on adulthood. According to Erikson‟s psychosocial model, individuals progress through psychosocial stages that require them to resolve various conflicts from birth to their eventual old age and death. Baltes‟s selection, optimisation, and compensation theory also poses a staged approach to individuals aging with each stage having different psychological achievements and failures. The influence of society tends to decrease as individuals age (Giri, 2003; Schaie & Willis, 1993, 2000; Schaie, 2008).To address this shortage of developmental theories focusing specifically on adulthood, Schaie and Willis proposed a stage theory of cognition (2000) addressing developmental theories in adulthood. This theory was developed based on research focused on the cognitive development of adults. The theory proposes seven stages through which individual‟s progress (Schaie & Willis, 1993, 2000; Schaie, 2008).
The first stage is labelled acquisitive since it relies on much of Piaget‟s theory of children. Consequently, this stage refers to the period of childhood and adolescence.The second stage covering young adulthood is labelled achieving. This stage involves individuals applying the knowledge they acquired in the previous stage. This knowledge is used for embarking on career opportunities and other life changes such as marriage and children. This stage also involves the use of intelligence and goal-orientated behaviour.
DECLARATION
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
ABSTRACT
TABLE OF CONTENTS
LIST OF APPENDICES i
LIST OF TABLES
LIST OF FIGURES
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
1.1 Aims of the Study
1.2 Contextualising the Research
1.3 Overview of the Research Method
1.4 Overview of Chapters
CHAPTER 2: TEST DEVELOPMENT RESEARCH
2.1 Introduction
2.2 The History of Language Testing
2.3 Test Development
2.4 International Test Development
2.5 Cross-Cultural Testing
2.6 Conclusion
CHAPTER 3: COGNITIVE TESTING
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Psychological Theories of Cognition
3.2.1 Jean Piaget‟s Stages of Cognitive Development
3.2.2 Lev Vygotsky‟s Socio-Cultural Theory of Cognitive Development
3.2.3 A Comparison of Piaget and Vygotsky‟s Theories of Cognitive Development
3.2.4 Schaie and Willis‟s Staged Theory of Cognition for Adulthood
3.2.5 Perry‟s Theory of the Development of College Students
3.2.6 Belenky, Clinchy, Goldberg, and Tarule‟s Theory on Woman‟s Ways of Knowing
3.3 Models of Intelligence
3.3.1 Theories of a General (Unifying) Intelligence
3.3.2 Multiple Intelligence Theories
3.3.3 The Influence of the Intelligence Models in Testing
3.4 Language and Cognition
3.5 Conclusion
CHAPTER 4: THE RESEARCH RELATING TO THE ENGLISH COMPREHENSION TEST
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Reading Comprehension
4.3 Comprehension as a Cognitive Exercise
4.4 Verbal Reasoning
4.5 Studies on Verbal Ability
4.6 The Construction of the English Comprehension Test
4.7 The Initial Findings of the English Comprehension Test
4.8 Conclusion
CHAPTER 5: MESSICK‟S UNIFIED THEORY OF VALIDITY
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Defining Validity
5.3 Messick‟s Theory of Validity
5.4 Challenges of Messick‟s Theory of Validity
5.5 Conclusion
CHAPTER 6: RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Primary Objectives of the Research
6.3 Research Design
6.4 Sampling and Procedure
6.5 Data Collection Instruments
6.6 Ethical Considerations
6.7 Data Analysis
6.7.1 Descriptive Statistics of the ECT
6.7.2 Statistical Techniques
6.8 Conclusion
CHAPTER 7: PRESENTATION OF RESULTS
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Descriptive Statistics
7.2.1 Description of the Sample for the ECT Version 1.2
7.2.2 Description of the Sample for the ECT Version 1.3
7.2.3 Description of the Data for ECT Version 1.2
7.2.4 Description of the Data for ECT Version 1.3
7.2.5 Description of the Psychometric Tests With the ECT Versions 1.2 and 1.3
7.3 Rasch Analyses Results
7.3.1 ECT Version 1.2 Results
7.3.2 ECT Version 1.3 Results
7.4 Confirmatory Factor Analysis
7.4.1 The ECT Version 1.3 Results
7.5 Multi-Trait Multi-Method Analyses
7.5.1 The ECT Version 1.2 Results
7.5.2 The ECT Version 1.3 Results
7.5.3 Comparison of Psychometric Tests for ECT 1.2 and ECT 1.3
7.6 Differential Test Functioning Analysis Results
7.6.1 The ECT Version 1.2 Results
7.6.2 The ECT Version 1.3 Results
7.7 Reliability Analysis Results
7.8 Conclusion
CHAPTER 8: DISCUSSION OF RESULTS
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Rasch Analyses Discussion
8.3 Differential Test Functioning Analysis Discussion
8.3.1 Discussion of Gender
8.3.2 Discussion of Racial Groups (African, White and Coloured)
8.4 Multi-Trait Multi-Method Discussion
8.5 Confirmatory Factor Analysis Discussion
8.6 Reliability
8.7 Messick‟s Theoretical Framework
8.7.1 Content Facet of Construct Validity
8.7.2 Substantive Facet of Construct Validity
8.7.3 Structural Facet of Construct Validity
8.7.4 Generalisability Facet of Construct Validity
8.7.5 External Facet of Construct Validity
8.7.6 Consequential Facet of Construct Validity
8.8 The Construct of Verbal Reasoning
8.9 Conclusion
CHAPTER 9: RECOMMENDATIONS, LIMITATIONS, AND CONCLUSION
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Recommendations
9.3 Limitations
9.4 Summary of Findings Conclusion
REFERENCES
