Violence in the Indian cultural context

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Chapter 5 Asceticism-Violence-Eroticism tripartite scheme

Asceticism in the Indian cultural context

When one hears the word « asceticism », the images that come to one’s mind are of an individual who practices celibacy, self-mortification, fasting, contemplation, wears simple vestments, engages in vows of silence and penance, one who is deeply committed to a spiritual quest, and pursues a wandering life-style with an attitude of total detachment to worldly concerns and social conventions.
The clergy of the religions stemming from the Indian context seem to perfectly fit this image described above. Many scholars see the institution of asceticism as the hallmark of Indian religiosity. Oman points out that « it is the ascetic profession that time out of mind has been of pre-eminent dignity in the eyes of the Indian people. »123 Renou regards Hinduism to be « a religion of renunciation » which is « a global characterization » of it.124 Deussen remarks in the context of asceticism and the Indian people « that the phenomenon of asceticism made its appearance among them earlier and occupied a larger place than among any other known people. »125 Dutt writes that « it is to the ascetics that India owes largely all that is valuable and enduring in her cultural and spiritual life. »126 Radhakrishnan observes that « from the beginning of her history India has adored and idealized not soldiers and statesmen, not men of science and leaders of industry, not even poets and philosophers but those rarer and chastened spirits…..time has discredited heroes as easily as it has forgotten every one else but the saints remain. »127 Elliot says that « in India no religious teacher can expect a hearing unless he begins by renouncing the world. »128 Dutt clinches the issue by enunciating that « one who has need to sway the group-mind whether a religious preacher, a social reformer or even a political leader—-finds it to his purpose to appear in sannyāsī’s likeness in this country, for in that semblance he is able to command the highest respect and the readiest following. »129
The question is: when did this practice and way of life emerge and then develop in the Indian context. Many Indologists are of the view that the institution of asceticism in India is pre-Aryan. There are two main reasons behind this conclusion. Firstly, the most famous seal of the Indus Valley civilization depicts a yogi like figure sitting in a meditative posture. Secondly, any semblance of asceticism in the Vedas does not occur until the tenth book of the ègveda which scholars consider to be of very late origin in comparison to the other books of that same Veda. Let me elaborate on each one of these points in detail.
Sir John Marshall [1876-1958], the British archaeologist who discovered the Indus Valley civilization in 1922, notes the following about the « yogi » seal depicted below:
« The God, who is three-faced, is seated on a low throne in a typical attitude of Yoga, with legs bent double beneath him, heel to heel and toes turned downwards. His arms are outstretched, his hands with thumb to front, resting on his knees. From wrist to shoulder, the arms are covered with bangles, eight smaller and three larger; over his breast is a triangular or perhaps a series of necklaces or torques, like those of the later class of Goddess figurines from Baluchistan and round his waist a double band. The lower limbs are bare and the phallus (urdhva medhrā) seemingly exposed. Crowning his head is a pair of horns meeting in a tall head-dress. To either side of the god are four animals, an elephant and tiger on his proper right, a rhinoceros and buffalo on his left. Beneath the throne are two deer standing with heads regardant and horns turned to the center. »130
This figure needs to be contrasted with the religion described in the earliest parts of the ègveda to understand the evolution of asceticism in India. The religion of the ègveda, in general, seems to be one that is based on stotra [hymns of praise] and yajña [fiery sacrifices] to the gods. The religion is materialistic and life-loving in every sense. The request of the votary to the goddess Śrī in the 20th verse of the Śrīsūkta of the ègveda makes it very clear:
« putra pautra dhanam dhānyam hastāśādi gaveratham prajānām bhavasi mātā āyuùmantam karotu mām. »
« O Mother of all beings, bless me with sons, grandsons (through the sons), wealth, grains, elephants, horses, cows, chariots and longevity. »
Some more examples of this attitude of seeking prosperity, pleasure, progeny and perpetuation of life in early Vedic literature are:
sam gomad indra vājavad asme pçthu śravo bçhat.
viśvāyur dhehy akùitam.
« Give, Indra, wide and lofty fame, wealthy in cattle and in strength, Lasting our life-time, failing not. » [ègveda I:9:7]
asme dhehi śravo bçhad dyumnam sahasrasātamam.
indra tā rathinīr iùaþ.
« Grant us high fame, O Indra, grant riches bestowing thousands, those Fair fruits of earth borne home in wains. » [ègveda I:9:8]
juùño hi dūto asi havyavāhano’gne rathīr adhvarāõām.
sajūr aśvibhyām uùasā suvīryam asme dhehi śravo bçhat.
« For thou art offering-bearer and loved messenger, the charioteer of sacrifice:
Accordant with the Aśvins and with Dawn grant us heroic strength and lofty fame. » [ègveda I:44:2]
viśvām aryo vipaścito ‘ti khyas tūyam ā gahi.
asme dhehi śravo bçhat.
« You, the lord, pass over all other worshippers and come quickly to us, and bestow on us abundant fame. » [ègveda VIII:65:9]
sahasre pçùtīnāmaghiścandram bçhatpçthu.
śukram hiraõyamā dade.
« Upon a thousand cows I obtain gold, abundant, delightful, wide-spread and pure. » [ègveda VIII:65:11]
It is very clear from these sample verses that the early Vedic Aryans had a very simple, direct and practical view of life. Besides progeny, prosperity and longevity, they looked for protection from calamities, tragedies and sins so that they may be free from these impediments in order to live a joyous and abundant life to its fullest measure. Bhagat describes the attitude of the early Vedic Aryans best by saying that « they were conscious of the might of the gods who symbolized power, strength, wealth and vigor and whom they evoked for the attainment of worldly comforts with a view to enjoy the blessings of the world. Their worship was sincere but utilitarian. Their ideal of happiness was quite simple and materialistic on the whole. It comprised mainly a desire to live a natural duration of human life which was hundred years, full term of life of a hundred autumns, hundred springs, hundred winters and a keener desire for progeny and cattle. The desire for sons was so dominant that they longed to see sons of their sons. The prayers of the ègvedic people thus mainly centered round the desire for prosperity, progeny and safety from misfortunes. Life was thought of as a blessing which they loved in all its fullness and the joys and pleasures of this world deeply interested them. »131
Anyway, this view of life was the very opposite of a world-negating, life-denying ideal of asceticism.
Even though the origins of Indian asceticism lie in pre-Aryan Indus Valley culture, and the worldview of the early Aryans was clearly anything but ascetic, yet the roots of asceticism are to be found in middle Vedic culture and it becomes fully grown and institutionalized by the late Vedic period. The reason for the finding of asceticism in middle Vedic culture is perhaps due the assimilation and the incorporation of certain Dravidian institutions by the middle-period Vedic Aryans. These Aryans saw the power of certain ascetic and occult practices and eventually allotted these esoteric practices the status of the fourth Veda, i.e. the Atharvaveda. It was a sort of a begrudging acceptance of the alien institutions and way of life without completely giving up their own.
Fire, the central focal point of Vedic Aryan ritualistic religiosity was looked upon by them as the oblation-bearer to the gods as well as something they could propitiate to seek destruction of their foes. Below are some passages from the ègveda that give insights into such an attitude on the part of the Aryans.
tapanti śatrūn svarõa bhūmā mahāsenāso amebhireùām.
« Leaders of the great armies, by the power of these (gods), burn their foes, as the sun (scorches) the regions. » [VII:34:19]
abhīhi manyo tavastavīyāntapasā yujā vi jahi śatrūn.
« Come to us Manyu, who are the strongest of the strong; with tapas as your ally overthrow our enemies. » [X:83:3]
tamajarebhirvçùabhistava svaistapā tapiùñha tapasā tapasvān.
« Burn with your own imperishable flames him who injures us abiding in secret, or when near to us design us harm. » [VI:5:4]
tapo ùvagne antarām amitrān tapā śamsamararuùaþ parasya. tapo vaso cikitāno accittānvi te tiùñhantāmajarā ayāsaþ.
« Burn thoroughly, O Agni, our assailing enemies, burn the purpose of the adversary who does not offer worship; grantor of homes of those who know, burn who have no thought, so that your undecaying, all-pervading beams may eternally endure. » [III:18:2]
The key word here is « tapas », for in this word lies the seed of Vedic asceticism. The noun « tapas » is derived from the Sanskrit verbal root « tap » meaning « to burn, to boil ». Hence the Vedic Aryans, in perhaps trying to incorporate the meditative practices of the Dravidians, internalized the heat of the external yajña fire. They must have become keenly aware of the extraordinary spiritual benefits and the immense occult powers that one could acquire in the pursuit of such a disciplined practice. The Vedic Aryans must have also observed that the Dravidians in their practice of asceticism gave up a lot of worldly pleasures in order to obtain these enormous powers and benefits. Hence the early Vedic Aryan weltanschauung of life-loving materialism soon gave rise to a world-view that spurned such a worldly attitude. Hence we can see this change in attitude in the Vedas themselves. Below are some examples:
çtam ca satyam cābhīddhāttapaso’dhyajāyata.
« Righteousness and Truth were generated from austerities. » [ègveda X:190:1]
tapasā ye anādhçùyāstapasā ye svaryayuþ. tapo ye cakrire mahastāmścidevāpi gacchatāt.
« To those who through austerities are untouched (by sin), to those who through austerities have gone to heaven, to those who have performed abundant penance, do you proceed. » [ègveda X:154:2]
tubhyedamindra pariùicyate madhum……tvam tapaþ paritapyājayaþ svaþ.
« O Indra, for you is this honey poured forth………you won heaven by performing extreme austerities. » [ègveda X:167:1] yā angirasastapaseha cakrustābhyaþ……
« Those whom the Angirasas created by austerities. » [ègveda X:169:2]
[Śatapatha Brāhmaõa X:4:42]
Tapas thus becomes « the unflagging, unsparing effort in the achievement of higher things; the infinite pains that one has to take to do something really worthwhile. »132 As the life-loving worldly attitude of the early Vedic Aryans gives way to the world-negating ascetic ideal of the later Vedic period and beyond, the entire set of institutions of the apavarga fourth estate began to take shape in Indian religious culture when the early Vedic Aryans had the three stages of brahmacarya, gçhastha, and vānaprasthā, now the fourth stage of sannyāsa got ushered in. Similarly, the ritual and deity criticizing metaphysical and mystical texts known as the Upaniùads came into being. To the three puruùārthas of artha, kāma and dharma, got tagged on the fourth puruùārtha of mokùa. The goal was no longer yajña [religious ritual] and svarga [heaven], but niùkāmasadkarma [selfless ethical action] and mokùa [salvation]. The later Vedic Aryans realized that their gods of old such as Indra, Varuõa, Soma, Rudra, Vāyu, Agni etc. are ultimately part of one universal metaphysical principle called Brahman who could be realized only mystically through the twin spiritual disciplines of renunciation and meditation. Brahman was the ultimate truth that equalized the gods, sages and men in one Supreme Reality. The gods did not want men to realize this because the latter would stop sacrificing to them. Bçhadāraõyakopaniùad I:4:10 makes all this clear.
tadātmānam evāvet aham brahmāsmīti tasmāt tat sarvam abhavat tad yo yo devānām pratyabudhyata sa eva tad abhavat tathā çùīõām tathā manuùyānām………tasmād eùām tanna priyam yadetan manuùyā vidyuþ.
« It knew itself only as ‘I am Brahman’. Therefore it became all. Whoever among the gods became awakened to this, he, indeed, became that. It is the same in the case of the sages, same in the case of men…….Therefore it is not pleasing to the gods that men should know this. »
« The gods are not pleased that men should know the ultimate truth, for then they would know the subordinate place the gods hold and give up making them offerings. »
[Radhakrishnan, ‘The Principal Upaniùads’ (Harper-Collins, New Delhi:1994), pp.168-169]
The earlier aspirations of home, wife, children, wealth, kin and kine in the light of an impermanent existence full of suffering gave way to the peace and freedom of total renunciation of the world.
Bçhadāraõyakopaniùad IV:4:22 makes this change in attitude very clear.
« etam eva viditvā munir bhavati, etam eva pravrājino lokam icchantaþ pravrajanti. etad ha sma vai tat pūrve vidvāmsaþ prajām na kāmayante: kim prajayā kariùyāmaþ; yeùām no’yam ātmāyam lokaiti. te ha sma putraiùaõāyāśca vittaiśaõāyaśca vyutthāya, atha bhikùācaryam caranti; yā hyeva putraiùaõā sā vittaiùaõā, yā vittaiùaõā sā lokaiùaõā; ubhe hyete eùaõe eva bhavataþ sa eùa neti netyātmā. »
« On knowing It in truth, one becomes an ascetic. Desiring It only as their worlds, monks wander forth. Verily, because they know this the ancient sages did not wish for offspring. What shall we do with offspring (they said), we who have attained the Supreme Soul, this world. They having risen above the desire for sons, the desire for wealth, the desire for worlds; both these are, indeed, desires only. This Universal Soul is (that which has been described as) not this, not this. »
Also, Bçhadāraõyakopaniùad IV:4:6 shows the great spiritual result of one who has no material desires.
« yokāmo niùkāma āptakāma ātmakāmaþ, na tasya prāõā, utkrāmanti, brahmaiva san brahmāpyeti. »
« He who is without desire, who is freed from desire, whose desire is satisfied, whose desire is the Supreme Soul; his breaths do not depart. Being the Supreme Soul, he goes the Supreme Soul. »
There is an old saying that « speech is silver, but silence is golden. » Unbeknownst to them, or as a natural process of spiritual maturity, the Vedic Aryans seemed to have followed this dictum in their religious history. The sonorous chanting of the hymns of the Vedas by the early Vedic Aryans praising their various gods for bountiful earthly blessings, now gave way in the late Vedic period of the Upaniùads to the deep silence of meditation practiced by austere ascetics spurning all earthly pleasures and material amenities in order to seek a permanent mystical union with the Supreme Primal Universal Cosmic Principle termed « Brahman » through the contemplation of the sacred syllable « Om ». To this end, the first type of Vedic ascetics came to be referred to as « munis » (silent ones) as they practiced the austerity of « mauna vrata » (the vow of silence).
ègveda X:136 is known as the Munisūkta. Some of the chief characteristics of a muni are:
He is long-haired (keśin), clad in soiled yellow (piśangā vasate malā), gridled with wind (vātaśanāþ) and into whom the gods enter (deveùito). He supports Agni and moisture, heaven and earth; he resembles the sky and the light.
He proclaims: « In the intoxication of ecstasy we are mounted on the winds. You mortals can see only our body. »
He flies through the air and is the friend of the gods.
He is the steed of the wind (vāta) and a friend of Vāyu, impelled by the gods, he inhibits the two seas, that of the rising and that of the setting sun.
He travels by the path of the Apsarases, the Gandharvas and wild beasts and he knows thoughts or secret desires.
He drinks with Rudra from the cup of poison.133
It is interesting to note that the muni is chiefly associated with the Vedic atmospheric gods like Indra, the Maruts and Rudra. ègveda VIII:17:14 clearly describes Indra as « the eternal friend of the munis » with the words « śāśvatīnāmindro muninām sakhā ». In ègveda VII:56:7-8, the Maruts are compared to the munis in terms of their prowess. In ègveda X:136:5, the muni is described as the « one who drank poison with Rudra » with the words « keśī viùasyasya pātreõa yadrudreõāpibatsaha. » The vow of silence together with other ascetic practices seems to give the munis the ability to magically partake in the power of the atmospheric gods in terms of having special powers such as the ability to transport oneself through space rapidly and even to be unaffected by poison that is capable of destroying the cosmos.
On another track, a slow skepticism is emerging within the Vedic tradition itself in regards to the gods and the efficacy of the sacrifices. ègveda VIII:100:3 boldly ventures to question the very existence of the god Indra with the words:
« pra su stomam bharata vājayanta indrāya satyam yadi satyamasti. nendro astīti nema u tva āha ka īm dadarśa kamabhi ùñavam. »
« Offer fervently, may war-loving companions, true praise of Indra, if he truly exists; Nema says ‘verily, there is no Indra’, who has ever seen him? Whom shall we praise. »
Similarly, ègveda X:129:6 questions the origins of the universe with a dismayed skepticism with the words:
« ko addhā veda ka iha pra vocatkuta ājātā kuta iyam visçùñiþ. arvāgdevā asya visarjanenāthā ko veda yata ābabhūva. »
« Who really knows? Who in this world may declare it! Whence was this creation, whence was it engendered? The gods (were) subsequent to the world’s creation; so who knows whence it arose? »
Again, bewildered by the polytheism of their religion, the Vedic votaries in ègveda X:121:1-9 rhetorically ask themselves in a chorus-like fashion nine times as to which god ought they to make their oblations with the words:
« kasmai devāya haviùā vidhema? » meaning « To what deity may we sacrifice? »
There were already segments within Vedic Aryan society which realized the later evolved religious ideal of pantheism and monism than the prevailing polytheism with its cult of magically-oriented sacrificial ritualism. Thus expressions and utterances such as:
« ekam sat viprā bahudhā vadanti » [ègveda I:164:46] meaning « The priests call the one Reality by many names. »
« ekam santam bahudhā kalpayanti » [ègveda X:114:5] meaning « They imagine the one as multiple. »
This transition from polytheism to pantheism was the realization of a « growing sense of helplessness of the individual and the poverty and wretchedness of his life in the presence of universal forces »134 the insignificance of the individual in contrast to the awesome might of the universal becomes increasingly clear. It is a sort of mystic realization. This sort of spiritual awakening is cogently expressed in Bçhadāraõyakopaniùad IV:4:22
« tam etam vedānuvacanena brāhmaõā vividiùanti, yajñena, dānena, tapasānāśakena; etam eva viditvā munir bhavati, etam eva pravrājino lokam icchantaþ pravrajanti. etad ha sma vai tat pūrve vidvāmsaþ prajām na kāmayante: kim prajayā kariùyāmaþ; yeùām no’yam ātmāyam lokaiti. te ha sma putraiùaõāyāśca vittaiśaõāyaśca vyutthāya, atha bhikùācaryam caranti; yā hyeva putraiùaõā sā vittaiùaõā, yā vittaiùaõā sā lokaiùaõā; ubhe hyete eùaõe eva bhavataþ sa eùa neti netyātmā; agçhyaþ, na hi gçhyate; aśīryaþ, na hi śīryate; asangaþ, na hi sajyate; asito na vyathate, na riùyati »
« The priests seek to know It by the study of the Vedas, by sacrifices, by gifts, by penance, by fasting. On knowing It in truth, one becomes an ascetic. Desiring It only as their worlds, monks wander forth. Verily, because they know this the ancient sages did not wish for offspring. What shall we do with offspring (they said), we who have attained the Supreme Soul, this world. They having risen above the desire for sons, the desire for wealth, the desire for worlds; both these are, indeed, desires only. This Universal Soul is (that which has been described as) not this, not this. It is incomprehensible for It is never comprehended. It is indestructible for It cannot be destroyed. It is unattached for does not attach Itself. It is unfettered for it does not suffer, It is not injured. »

Table of Contents
Part A
1. Aim of the Thesis
2. Introduction
2.1 Purpose
2.2 Prior attempts
2.3 Plan
2.4 Theoretical background
2.5 Expectations
3. Literature Review
3.1 Books on the Subject
3.2 Articles on the Subject
4. Georges Dumézil and Indo-European Tripartite Scheme
4.1 Discovery
4.2 tripartite schemes in the traditions of pre-Christian Europe
4.3 tripartite schemes in the Indo-Iranian tradition
4.4 criticisms of Dumézil’s tripartite scheme
5. Asceticism-Violence-Eroticism tripartite scheme
5.1 Asceticism in the Indian cultural context
5.2 Eroticism in the Indian cultural context
5.3 Violence in the Indian cultural context
5.4 Wendy Doniger’s asceticism-eroticism dualistic scheme
6. Sattva-Rajas-Tamas tripartite scheme
6.1 The triguõas: a synoptic understanding
6.2 The Sānkhya-Yoga tradition
6.3 The adaptation of the triguõas in the three Vedāntic traditions
7. Dharma-dharmādharma-adharma tripartite scheme
7.1 Understanding dharma and adharma in the Indian religious context
7.2 Understanding dharma and adharma in the Indian social context
8. The Rāmāyaõa: a synopsis
9. The Mahābhārata: a synopsis
10. An analysis of some of the important characters of the Rāmāyaõa
10.1 Daśaratha
10.2 Kausalyā
10.3 Sumitrā
10.4 Kaikeyī
10.5 Viśvāmitra
10.6 Rāma
10.7 Bharata
10.8 Lakùmaõa
10.9 Janaka
10.10 Sītā
10.11 Vālī
10.12 Sugrīva
10.13 Hanumān
10.14 Rāvaõa
10.15 Kumbhakarõa
10.16 Vibhīùaõa
11. An analysis of some of the important characters of the Mahābhārata
11.1 Bhīùma
11.2 Droõa
11.3 Dhçtarāùñra
11.4 Yudhiùñhira
11.5 Bhīma
11.6 Arjuna
11.7 Draupadī
11.8 Karõa
11.9 Duryodhana
11.10 Duþśāsana
11.11 Kuntī
11.12 Kçùõa
12. Tripartite analysis of the Rāmāyaõa
12.1 The episode of the Krauñca birds, the Fowler and Vālmīki
12.2 The episode of Daśaratha, his childless situation and the Aśvamedha  sacrifice
12.3 The episode of èùyaśçnga, sacrifices and courtesans
12.4 Triadism in the Aśvamedha sacrifice
12.5 Daśaratha divides the pāyasa between his three principal queens who give birth to four sons
12.6 Episode of Viśvāmitra taking Rāma and Lakùmaõa to his hermitage for  destroying the demons, granting of celestial weapons as a reward and leading  them to Mithilā
12.7 The Ahalyā episode
12.8 Rāma stringing Śiva’s bow at Janaka’s court and winning Sītā’s hand
12.9 Triadism of Śiva
12.10 The Paraśurāma episode
12.11 Four brides are a triad
12.12 The trio depart for the forest
12.13 Andhamuni’s tale
12.14 « Three » boons of Kaikeyī
12.15 Three worthies
12.16 The Surpanakhā episode
12.17 Rāvaõa’s abduction of Sītā and the sacrifices of Mārīca and Jañāyu
12.18 The Vālī and Sugrīva affair
12.19 The three brothers at Lankā
12.20 Three Kingdoms
12.21 Three divisions of the Vānara army
12.22 The three sons of Sukeśa
12.23 Rāvaõa offers nine heads
12.24 Rāvaõa-Vedavatī episode
12.25 The Rāvaõa-Rambhā-Nalakūbara episode
12.26 The Sītā-Vālmīki-Lava-Kuśa episode
12.27 Sītā swears thrice affirming her purity before entering the earth
13. Tripartite analysis of the Mahābhārata
13.1 Śantanu-Gangā-Devavrata
13.2 Śantanu-Satyavatī-Devavrata
13.3 Bhīùma-Citrāngada-Vicitravīrya
13.4 Bhīùma and Ambā-Ambikā-Ambālikā
13.5 Parāśara-Satyavatī-Vyāsa
13.6 Dhçtarāùñra-Pāõóu-Vidura
13.7 Durvāsas-Kuntī-Karõa
13.8 Vyāsa-Gāndhārī-Kauravas
13.9 Kindama-Pāõóu-Mādrī
13.10 The Five Pāõóavas
13.11 Śikhaõóin-Dhçùñadyumna-Draupadī
13.12 Balarāma-Kçùõa-Subhadrā
13.13 Three Kçùõas and Draupadī (alias Kçùõā)
13.14 Triadism and counter-triadism in the insult and avengement of Draupadī
13.15 The Three lights in every person
13.16 demonic-divine-devout
13.17 God-Preceptor-Disciple
13.18 The Four Kaurava Marshalls and triadism
13.19 Why did Gāndhārī curse Kçùõa to live for 36 years after the Kurukùetra battle?
13.20 The royal trio in the forest
13.21 Triadism in the Bhagavadgītā
14. The two epics connected in dharma-dharmādharma-adharma context in three curious episodes
15. Concluding Remarks
16. Bibliography
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